Supplementary Information. Gauge size. midline. arcuate 10 < n < 15 5 < n < 10 1 < n < < n < 15 5 < n < 10 1 < n < 5. principal principal

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Supplementary Information set set = Reward = Reward Gauge size Gauge size 3 Numer of correct trials 3 Numer of correct trials Supplementary Fig.. Principle of the Gauge increase.

The total numer of correct trials required to earn each onus varies randomly from one lock to another, defining different speed of gauge increase.

1 Supplementary Information set set = Reward = Reward Gauge size Gauge size 3 Numer of correct trials 3 Numer of correct trials Supplementary Fig.. Principle of the Gauge increase. The gauge size (y axis) increases linearly following 7 steps depending on the numer of correct Cued trials (x axis) performed in the main task. The total numer of correct trials required to earn each onus varies randomly from one lock to another, defining different speed of gauge increase. It was or 3 trials in a first set of sessions (left, used for monkey D) or,, 9 or 3 trials in a second set (right, used during the recording period for monkeys A and H). Note that the gauge stays full until monkeys check for it (dashed lue lines on top). ArcGen (AP +7.mm) ArcGen (AP +.mm) Post Post Ant Ant midline midline < n < < n < < n < < n < < n < < n < n = 9 n = 9 ArcGen ArcGen mm mm midline midline < n < < n < < n < < n < < n < < n < n = 97 Post Ant n = Post Ant Supplementary Fig.. Recording locations in monkey H and A. Recording grid reconstructions from neuronavigation and from each monkey's anatomical MRI (T,.T). Top, reconstructions of a grid over the 3D surface of the cortex to show the location of recordings in the dorsal frontal and prefrontal cortex (). Major sulci are indicated, as well as the rostro-caudal level of the genu of the sulcus (Arc Gen). Bottom, line drawing of the cortex of the dorsal ank of the cingulate sulcus () taken from an MRI section perpendicular to the electrode tracks. Colored disk size indicates the numer of single units recorded at each location. 'n' indicates the total numer of single units for each structure in each monkey.

2 Firing Rate (spk/sec) Firing Rate (spk/sec) Feedack Feedack / / Cued Cued ADWBTDQHT3 Ch_U9 ADWBTDQHT Ch_U HGPLPMU_9_Ch3_U3 ACYCUDPJU_3_Ch_U7 AIWHTGRDXCVDS Ch_U HFOKMMR Ch_U Time (ms) Touch Touch Supplementary Fig 3. Examples of single unit activity. Average firing rates and rasters for different single unit activities in (top 3 rows) and (ottom 3 rows) during negative/positive feedack (), vs. decisions (Middle), and Cued decisions in the main task (). Black lines on time axis and gray ackground highlight the time periods where the difference in firing rate is significant (Kruskall-Wallis test, p<.).

3 a n = n = n = 37 n = 39 7 n = 9 n = FEEDBACK # CHECK vs. WORK CUED # n = 9 n = 9 n = 3 n = 3 n = 3 n = numer of cells 7 Feedack 7 / 7 Cued numer of cells s On s On c Estimates for Gauge variale p < Supplementary Fig.. Single-suject data. The figures present population data for each monkey ( and H) with conventions as in main Figs. and 7a. (a) Population data of neurons presenting discrimination for Feedack, vs. decisions, and Cued decisions in the main task. Symol # indicates a significant difference etween regions for oth monkeys (Chi-square tests, p<-). () Sliding glm on single unit activity for Feedack, vs., and Cued decisions in the main task. (c) Estimates for the covariate Gauge extracted from the population glm (see main text and Methods).

4 a Post Ant 7 * * FEEDBACK CHECK vs. WORK CUED n = 9 < n < < n < < n < midline 9/ A B Percent of cells 3 DR / A B DR n=3 n= n= n=3 Supplementary Fig.. Homogeneous coding etween regions identified in the. (a) Recording grid reconstruction pooled for oth monkeys and highlighting the numer of recorded neurons in each suregions. The separation etween areas is ased on the description made in Morecraft et al. Cytoarchitecture and cortical connections of the anterior cingulate and adjacent somatomotor fields in the rhesus monkey. Brain Res Bull 7, 7-97 (). () Proportions of neurons (and the actual numer within ars) discriminating Feedack, vs. and Cued decisions in each area. Significant Chi-square comparisons are reported on the figure: * p<., p<.. The main difference was a smaller discrimination of Cued decisions in area B compared to the others. However the numer of recorded neurons in each area was not sufficient to go further in the differentiation etween areas. a Control Ch Control Wo Firing Rate (spk/sec) / s ADVBUCRIT_3_Ch_U9 Cued s time (sec) Touch Touch Supplementary Fig.. vs. compared with the Control task. The control task consists in touching a visual item presented at the position of one of the two levers. No reward is given (see Method). (a) One typical example neuron (recorded in the ) discriminating vs. decisions ut not control trials (left panel, green and pink dashed lines, and rasters on top) nor vs. choices in cued decisions (right panel) (green:, pink:, Blue:, Orange: choices). () Numer of cells in each structure for which a significant effect of vs. (green) or of Control vs. (grey) were oserved. The two histograms present the data for different thresholds, successive significant time ins (on the right, as in the main data analyses), and at a weaker threshold (3 ins, on the left). The figure shows that even at low threshold single units were very much involved in encoding vs. ut not the spatial position of the lever in the Control task. Percent Correct Decoding (%) 9 7 Feedack 9 7 numer of cells with significant effect (3 ins) / 3 39/ /93 / Control 7/9 / numer of cells with significant effect ( ins) Cued s / /93 / Control /9 / Linear Decoding Gaussian SVM Supplementary Fig. 7. Comparison of population coding using linear and non-linear decoding methods. The results otained from non-linear support vector machine (SVM) classifiers with a Gaussian kernel (right lack and lue, for and respectively) are superimposed on the results shown in Fig. a using linear decoding methods (light colors). Both methods used the same overall procedures (see Method). Only the random trial selections differ etween classifiers, which could in principle account for minor deviations. Nevertheless, non-linear SVM classifiers perform as well as linear classifiers, oth in terms of strength or latency of significant decoding (highlighted in old, p<.).

a Distance of Aggregation 7 3 Distance of Aggregation 3 N of neurons N of neurons Distance N of neurons Distance N of neurons c Clust Clust Clust Clust Clust Clust d Average Z-values Average firing

(a) Dendrograms for (left) and (right) representing the trees of classification constructed y the hierarchical clustering algorithm.

5 a Distance of Aggregation 7 3 Distance of Aggregation 3 N of neurons N of neurons Distance N of neurons Distance N of neurons c Clust Clust Clust Clust Clust Clust d Average Z-values Average firing rate (spk/s) Clust Time (s) Clust FEEDBACK CHECK vs. WORK CUED Cor Inc s Clust Time (s) Supplementary Fig.. Hierarchical clustering of SUAs. (a) Dendrograms for (left) and (right) representing the trees of classification constructed y the hierarchical clustering algorithm. () Similarity matrices otained from the dendrogram at a specific threshold (red line in a). Neurons are sorted ased on their appartenance to a given cluster. (c) Average z-values of each detected clusters for the 3 parameters considered (Feedack, vs. and Cued decisions) revealing classes of neurons with different encoding properties. The sign of z-values indicates the selectivity indicated within ars (e.g. positive z-values for feedack indicate more activity for Negative () than for positive feedack). (d) Average firing rate around feedack and (top and middle rows) and targets selection (ottom row) for the main clusters displayed in c (Clusters 3, & for, and & 3 for, from left to right). The clustering procedure highlights the preponderance of feedack in the as well as the co-expression of feedack and check-related activity. However, neurons were mostly grouped depending on their Cued decision preference in the main task.

6 monkey A monkey H.. RT (s).. n-3 n- n- n Distance to check n n-3 n- n- n Distance to check n Supplementary Fig. 9. / response times. Violin representations of and response times depending on the distance to check, at trial n, for monkey A (left panel) and H (right panel). Distriutions of response times were compared using a two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, revealing a significant differences etween trial n compared to all others (n-, n- and n-3; p<-3). Other comparisons (etween n-,n- or n-3) were not significant (p>.3). Hence, the figure shows that monkeys' response times differed etween and decisions ut did not vary with the distance to check (n-3 to n-, i.e. etween decisions). Estimates. Estimates. Gauge Scan / p<..... p<. Supplementary Fig.. Fixed effects of Scan, Gauge and / decision on group activity in (left) and (right). The estimates correspond to the isolated fixed effects from the glmm (see Methods). We tested and found that the interaction in-per-in etween Scan and / was not significant. Nevertheless, oth have a positive influence on group activity in : activity is higher when the monkey checks, and when he scans oth levers. The horizontal lines indicate which ins (equal or more than successive) are at p<.. a Numer of cells discriminating Difficulty in the main task 7 Difficulty Time (s) s On vs. discrimination (z-value) / VS Difficulty r =. p =.9 r =. p =. Supplementary Fig.. Numer of neurons encoding difficulty in the main task and its relation with encoding vs.. (a) Time resolved numer of cells extracted from the sliding glm with a significant discrimination of difficulty in the main task. Dashed gray line represents the % level. () Scatter plot showing the relationship etween asolute maximal z-values for vs. discrimination for each neuron (extracted from the sliding glm, y-axis) and difficulty at the time of target onset in the main task (x-axis). Note that only weak, if any, encoding of difficulty was oserved, and note also the asence of correlation etween and Difficulty effects in oth areas (r and p indicated within the panels).. Difficulties discrimination (z-value) Difficulties discrimination (z-value)

7 deviance glmm-olre 9 AIC glmm OLRE / AIC glmm deviance glmm 3 time in Supplementary Fig.. Model comparisons etween poisson glmm with or without the Oservation-Level random effects (OLRE). The models named glmm and glmm-olre are compared for deviance (right) and AIC (left: ratio of the two AIC across time ins (for the two structures, and ). The models included Gauge,, and PreviousPerformance as fixed effects and SUA as random effect. Note that the glmm-olre has always smaller deviance and smaller AIC.

Supplementary materials for: Executive control processes underlying multi- item working memory

Supplementary materials for: Executive control processes underlying multi- item working memory Antonio H. Lara & Jonathan D. Wallis Supplementary Figure 1 Supplementary Figure 1. Behavioral measures of