STUDIES ON DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS FORMS OF SULPHUR IN DIFFERENT SOIL SERIES OF CENTRAL FARM, MPKV, RAHURI

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1 1 STUDIES ON DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS FORMS OF SULPHUR IN DIFFERENT SOIL SERIES OF CENTRAL FARM, MPKV, RAHURI by MISS. MAYURI RAJENDRA KHALANE (Reg. No.09/073) A Thesis submitted to the MAHATMA PHULE KRISHI VIDYAPEETH, RAHURI , DIST.AHMEDNAGAR, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE (AGRICULTURE) in SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT OF SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, POST GRADUATE INSTITUTE MAHATMA PHULE KRISHI VIDYAPEETH, RAHURI , DIST : AHMEDNAGAR (M.S.) INDIA 2011

2 2 STUDIES ON DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS FORMS OF SULPHUR IN DIFFERENT SOIL SERIES OF CENTRAL FARM, MPKV, RAHURI by MISS. MAYURI RAJENDRA KHALANE (Reg. No.09/073) A Thesis submitted to the MAHATMA PHULE KRISHI VIDYAPEETH, RAHURI , DIST.AHMEDNAGAR, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE (AGRICULTURE) in SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY APPROVED BY Dr. A.R. Dhage (Chairman and Research Guide) Dr. A.N. Deshpande (Committee Member) Dr. A.G. Durgude (Committee Member) Dr. C.R. Palwe (Committee Member) DEPARTMENT OF SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, POST GRADUATE INSTITUTE MAHATMA PHULE KRISHI VIDYAPEETH, RAHURI , DIST : AHMEDNAGAR (M.S.) INDIA 2011

3 3 Dr. A.R. Dhage Professor, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri , Dist. Ahmednagar, Maharashtra State (INDIA). CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled, STUDIES ON DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS FORMS OF SULPHUR IN DIFFERENT SOIL SERIES OF CENTRAL FARM, MPKV, RAHURI, submitted to the Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri for the award of the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE (AGRICULTURE) in SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, embodies the results of a bona fide research carried out by MISS. MAYURI RAJENDRA KHALANE, under my guidance and supervision and that no part of the thesis has been submitted for any other Degree or Diploma in other form. The assistance and help received during the course of this investigation have been acknowledged. Place : MPKV, Rahuri (A.R. Dhage) Dated : / /2011. Research Guide

4 4 Dr. R.S. Patil Associate Dean, Post Graduate Institute, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri , Dist. Ahmednagar, Maharashtra State (INDIA) CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled, STUDIES ON DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS FORMS OF SULPHUR IN DIFFERENT SOIL SERIES OF CENTRAL FARM, MPKV, RAHURI, submitted to the Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri for the award of the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE (AGRICULTURE) in SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, embodies the results of a bona fide research carried out by MISS. MAYURI RAJENDRA KHALANE, under the guidance and supervision of Dr. A.R. Dhage, Professor, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, M.P.K.V., Rahuri and that no part of the thesis has been submitted for any other Degree or Diploma. Place : MPKV, Rahuri Dated : / /2011. (R.S. Patil)

5 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Emotions cannot be adequately expressed in words as the emotions are transformed into more formalities. Nevertheless formalities have to be completed. My acknowledgements are many more than what I am expressing herewith illimitable pleasure. I consider myself to be the most fortunate to get an opportunity to work under the guidance and the chairmanship of Dr. A.R. Dhage, Professor, Department of Soil Science and Agril. Chemistry, M.P.K.V., Rahuri. It gives me an immense pleasure to express my deep sense of gratitude for his scholastic guidance, valuable suggestions and constant encouragement. I feel proud to express my deep feeling of gratitude towards Dr. H.G. More, Dean (F/A), M.P.K.V., Rahuri and Dr. R.S. Patil, Associate Dean (PGI), M.P.K.V., Rahuri for providing all the facilities during my research work. Words are inadequate to express and acknowledge my deep feelings of respect and gratitude towards Dr. A.N. Deshpande, Head, Department of Soil Science and Agril. Chemistry, M.P.K.V., Rahuri and member of advisory committee for his expert guidance and advice during the course of this investigation. I am also privileged to place on record my heartiest sense of gratitude Dr. A.G. Durgude, Analytical Chemist, Micronutrient Research Scheme, and Dr. C.R. Palwe, Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, M.P.K.V., Rahuri for their constructive criticism, valuable guidance and critical evaluation of this manuscript. I also feel pleased to acknowledge with thanks, the help and co-operation rendered to me by my teachers Dr. V.M. Amrutsagar, Dr. P.P. Kadu, Dr. S.R. Patil and Dr. V.S. Patil, Department of Soil Science and

6 6 Agricultural Chemistry, M.P.K.V., Rahuri for their advice and ever willing help throughout the present investigation. I am also thankful to Mrs. Barange Madam, Miss. Ranjana Madam, Shri. Pravin Thakur, Takate Bhaiya, Shri. Adsure mama, Shri. Buchude mama, Miss. Abhang Madam, Kharde Bhaiya, John Bhaiya, Doke Mavashi, Shri. Gawade, Kanthesh Bhaiya and all staff members of the Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry for their timely help and sincere cooperation. I feel myself very lucky to share as joyful and loving company of my batchmates Kranti, Kalyani, Aashritha, Lina, Rupali, Zumbar, Sachin, Nitin, Sujit, Chayan, Dhananjay and all my friends for their helpful support and kind cooperation. The greatest of parents to their offspring is obscure even for the God and Goddesses and so for me to express my overwhelming feeling for their all kinds of sacrifices and blessings conferred upon me by my dearest and affectionate father Shri. Rajendra Bhimrao Mali and loving mother Smt. Sunanda Mali. I find no words to express my deepest sense of gratitude and reverence towards them. No words to express my affection towards my loving brother Nikhil for his constant inspiration and moral support. I am extremely thankful to Shri. Ranjit Patil, M.P.K.V. Rahuri for neat, tidy and meticulous word processing of this manuscript in decent form. I am deeply greateful to all the authors, past and present whose literature has been cited. Place : M.P.K.V., Rahuri. Date : / /2011. (M.R.Khalane)

7 7 CANDIDATE S DECLARATION CERTIFICATES CONTENTS 1. Research Guide iii 2. Associate Dean (PGI) iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF PLATES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ABSTRACT 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Physical and chemical properties of soil 6 ii v xii xiii xiii xiv xv Soil texture Soil reaction (ph) Soluble salts (EC) Organic carbon Calcium carbonate Forms of sulphur in soil Total sulphur Organic sulphur Sulphate sulphur Water soluble sulphur Non-sulphate sulphur Factors affecting different forms of sulphur ph Soluble salts (EC) Organic carbon Calcium carbonate Soil texture Relationship between different forms of sulphur 39

8 8 3. MATERIAL AND METHODS General description of the study area Location Physiography Geology Climate Present land used and natural vegetation Experimental details Physical and chemical properties Methods of analysis Statistical analysis RESULT AND DISCUSSION Morphological properties of typifying pedons Soil depth Soil colour Soil structure Soil texture Soil consistence Effervescence Details of typifying Pedon-1 : Phule-2 Inceptisol saline-sodic Pedon-2 : Phule-4 Vertisol sodic Pedon-3 : Phule-5 Vertisol sodic Pedon-4 : Phule-3 Inceptisol saline-sodic Pedon-5 : Water management series-2 56 Normal Inceptisol Pedon-6 : Water management series Normal Vertisol 4.3 Physical properties of typifying pedons Particle size distribution Chemical properties of typifying pedons Soil reaction (ph) 58

9 Electrical conductivity Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) Organic carbon Calcium carbonate Available nitrogen Available phosphorus Available potassium Saturation paste extract analysis of 65 typifying pedons Soil reactions (phs) Electrical conductivity (ECe) Ionic composition of saturation 66 paste extract Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) Forms of sulphur Total sulphur Organic sulphur Sulphate sulphur Water soluble sulphur Non-sulphate sulphur Correlation studies between forms of sulphur 78 with physico-chemical properties in soil ph versus forms of sulphur EC versus forms of sulphur Organic carbon versus forms of sulphur Calcium carbonate versus forms of sulphur Available macronutrient versus forms of 80 sulphur Sand, silt and clay versus forms of sulphur Relationship between forms of sulphur SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED VITA 102

10 10 LIST OF TABLES No. Title Page 1. Location of soil profile Meteorological data of MPKV, Rahuri (mean monthly) for 5 years ( ) 3. Important morphological features of pedons Methods used for soil analysis Morphological properties of typifying pedons Physical properties of typifying pedons Chemical properties of typifying pedons Available nutrient status of typifying pedons Saturation paste extract analysis of typifying pedons 10. Distribution of various forms of sulphur in typifying pedons 11. Per cent contribution of forms of sulphur to total sulphur 12. Correlationship between forms of sulphur and physico-chemical properties of soil 13. Relationship between forms of sulphur

11 11 LIST OF FIGURES No. Title Between Page 1. Depthwise distribution of total sulphur in soil series Depthwise distribution of organic sulphur in soil series 3. Depthwise distribution of sulphate sulphur in soil series 4. Depthwise distribution of water soluble sulphur in soil series 5. Depthwise distribution of non-sulphate sulphur in soil series LIST OF PLATES No. Title Between Page 1. Map of soil profile taken from Central Research Farm, MPKV, Rahuri 2. Pedon-1 showing Phule-2 soil series Pedon-2 showing Phule-4 soil series Pedon-3 showing Phule-5 soil series Pedon-4 showing Phule-3 soil series Pedon-5 showing Water management series Pedon-6 showing Water management series Pedon-2 : Phule-4 showing slickenside soil property in Vertisol 56-57

12 12 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ** : Highly significant 0C : Degree Celsius cm : Centimeter dsm -1 : Deci siemens per meter EC : Electrical conductivity et al. : Et alibia (And associates) gm : Gram (s) ha : Hectare kg ha -1 : Kilogram per hectare mel -1 : Milliequivalent per litre mg : Milligram mg kg -1 : Milligram per kilogram ppm : Part per million r : Correlation coefficient S : Sulphur SO4 2- S : Sulphate sulphur viz. : Videlicent (namely)

13 13 ABSTRACT DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS FORMS OF SULPHUR IN DIFFERENT SOIL SERIES OF CENTRAL FARM, MPKV, RAHURI By KHALANE MAYURI RAJENDRA A candidate for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE (AGRICULTURE) in SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 2011 Research Guide : Dr. A.R. Dhage Department : Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry Studies on Distribution of various forms of sulphur in different soil series of Central Farm, MPKV, Rahuri was conducted during the year Two representative profiles of saline- sodic (Inceptisol), two sodic (Vertisol) and two from normal (Inceptisol and Vertisol) were selected for the study. These soil samples were analysed for different physico-chemical properties and forms of sulphur. The results revealed that all the soils were deep to very deep. The colour of the soils from respective pedons were very dark to grayish brown and subsurface horizons in some pedons become darker. The structure of the soils were sub-angular to angular blocky. The texture the soils was clayey. The results revealed that ph, EC and CaCO3 increased with depth of soil while other properties like organic carbon, available N, P and K decreased with increase in depth. The

14 14 Abstract contd Miss. M.R. Khalane electrical conductivity showed positive and significant correlation with all the forms of sulphur. The sand content showed a negative and significant correlation with all the forms of sulphur in all the soil profiles. The total sulphur content in soils ranged from 132 to 1023 mg kg -1. The total sulphur content was higher in saline-sodic (691 to 1023 mg kg -1 ) followed by sodic (483 to 713 mg kg -1 ) normal soils (132 to 145 mg kg -1 ). Total sulphur content of the soils showed positive and significant correlation with all the forms of sulphur i.e. organic sulphur (r = 0.977**), sulphate sulphur (r = 0.911**), water soluble sulphur (r = 0.860**) and non-sulphate sulphur (r = 0.992**). The organic sulphur content in soils ranged from 25.7 to mg kg -1. It accounted for 18.6 to 34.8 per cent of total sulphur. The organic sulphur content was higher in saline-sodic (185.2to mg kg -1 ) followed by sodic (99.5 to mg kg -1 ) and normal soils (25.7 to 83.7 mg kg -1 ), respectively. The organic sulphur showed positive and significant correlation with sulphate sulphur (r = 0.926**), water soluble sulphur (r = 0.898**) and nonsulphate sulphur (r = 0.944**). Sulphate sulphur content in soils ranged from 2.2 to 33.7 mg kg -1. It constituted 1.42 to 3.47 per cent with an average 2.51 per cent of the total sulphur. The sulphate sulphur content was higher in saline-sodic (14.7 to 33.7 mg kg -1 ) followed by sodic (5.7 to 13.7 mg kg -1 ) and normal soil (1.5 to 4.3 mg kg -1 ), respectively. Sulphate sulphur is positively and significantly correlated with all the

15 15 Abstract contd Miss. M.R. Khalane forms of sulphur i.e. water soluble sulphur (r = 0.870**) and nonsulphate sulphur (r = 0.876**). Water soluble sulphur content in soils ranged from 1.5 to 38.6 mg kg -1. It accounted for 2.52 per cent of total sulphur in soil. The water soluble sulphur content was higher in saline-sodic (14.7 to 38.6 mg kg -1 ) followed by sodic (5.7 to 13.7 mg kg -1 ) and normal soil (1.5 to 4.3 mg kg -1 ), respectively. Water soluble sulphur showed positive and significant correlation with all the forms of sulphur i.e. non-sulphate sulphur (r = 0.818**). Non-sulphate sulphur content in soils ranged from to mg kg -1. It is accounted from 62.8 to 79.1 per cent of the total sulphur. Non-sulphate sulphur content was higher in saline-sodic (491.1 to mg kg -1 ) followed by sodic (368 to mg kg -1 ),respectively. Non-sulphate sulphur is positively and significantly correlated with all the forms of sulphur i.e. total sulphur (r = 0.992**), organic sulphur (r = 0.944**), sulphate sulphur (r = 0.876**) and water soluble sulphur (r = 0.818*). Study of profile samples showed that the total, organic, sulphate, water soluble and non-sulphate sulphur decreased with depth. All the forms of sulphur were positively and significantly correlated with each other because they are in dynamic equilibrium in soil. All the forms of sulphur were higher in saline-sodic soils because EC was more due to which there was development of sulphate acidity. In sodic soils all the forms of sulphur were less because there was increase in relative proportion of sodium so the amount of sulphur get decreased. Pages 1 to 102

16 16 1. INTRODUCTION Sulphur is one of the essential element required for the growth and development of plant. It is now considered the fourth major plant nutrient after nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. It resembles N in its functions in the plant and P in the amounts taken up by plants. High yields of good quality produce become possible when crops have access to optimum amounts of sulphur (Anonymous, 1992). Sulphur application resulted in higher yield with superior quality. Now, the time has come to include sulphur as the fourth major plant nutrient into the main stream of balanced fertilizer use. Sulphur plays a vital role in the synthesis of chlorophyll (Deb and Sachadev, 1997) and it is a constituent of methionine, cystein and cystine the three common amino acids found in the plants which is present in the form of sulphate. Besides, Sulphur is involved in various metabolic and enzymatic processes of plants (Sonar, 1997). It is also constituent of glutathione, compound supposed to play a part in plant respiration and in the synthesis of oils. Sulphur also plays a vital role in chlorophyll formation. In recent years, the deficiency of sulphur is being increasingly reported in different soils and crops due to several reasons like increased use of sulphur free fertilizers, decreased use of sulphur fungicides and insecticides resulting in exhaustion of soils for sulphur. Recent proceeding of various

17 17 seminars and conferences on sulphur have also taken a serious note of sulphur deficiencies in soils and low to high magnitude of responses to added sulphur throughout the country (TSI/FAI/IFA,1997). Further, inclusion of sulphur in balanced fertilization as an integrated nutrient supply system was greatly emphasised. Despite the abundance of sulphur in the earth crust it is often present in suboptimal quantities in the soil. In surface soils, sulphur is predominantly in the organic fraction and the native supply varies with supplies of organic matter from low to adequate (Oke, 1967). Thus native sulphate is supplemented by variable additions through rainwater, irrigation water, atmosphere, fertilizers, manures, insecticides and fungicides. The common losses of sulphur from soils are through leaching, volatilization and removal by crops. Distribution of sulphur forms and their interrelationship with some important soil characteristics decide the sulphur supplying power of soil by influencing its release and dynamics in soil. Availability of sulphur from organic sulphur from reserves in soils depends on its mineralization and immobilisation through microbial activity. Elemental sulphur, sulphide-sulphur and other sulphur compounds can be oxidised in the soil purely by chemical means but these are usually much slower and therefore, less important than microbial oxidation which depends on interaction of three factors; microbial population in soil,

18 18 characteristics of sulphur source and soil environmental conditions (Tisdale et al., 1995). Elemental sulphur or sulphides may be oxidised under the influence of microbes. Total S content in soils, irrespective of soil types, vary widely. In various soil types of India, mean content of total S was 213 mg kg -1 in red, 329 mg kg -1 in alluvial, 350 mg kg -1 in lateritic, 456 mg kg -1 in hill, 530 mg kg -1 in black, 4986 mg kg -1 in acid sulphate and 6319 mg kg -1 in saline soils. Organic S content irrespective of soil types varied from 42 to 2405 mg kg -1. All the soil types identified in Maharashtra state had invariably much higher content as well as its share towards total S. By and large, the contents of non sulphate S in soils of India varied from as low as 1 mg kg -1 to as high as 248 mg kg -1 and constitute 1 to 75 per cent of the total S. Available sulphur status of the major soil types in India ranged from 2.1 mg kg-1 in red soils to 2000 mg kg -1 in saline and alkali soils (Takkar, 1988). The government of India's high powered committee on fertilizer consumer prices (Rao committee) in its report in 1987 recognised that sulphur deficiency had been noted in about 90 districts in the country representing million hectares of crop land. From the recent assessment the number of districts suffering from varying degrees of sulphur deficiency are around 120. Annual crop removal of sulphur is about one million tonnes which is comparable to phosphrous uptake. By the year 2000, this is likely to approach million tonnes

19 19 sulphur. Replenishment of this amount of sulphur can be accomplished by well planned strategy that utilises all available sources of plant nutrient sulphur (Tondon, 1991). With the increasing awareness of sulphur deficiency it becomes necessary to study different forms of sulphur present in soils and their contribution to plant nutrition. Hence, many investigators from different countries of the world have attempted to find out the forms of sulphur and are reported by Dwarkanath et al. (1995) in Maharashtra soils; Hariram et al. (1993) in North Kashmir soils, Dolui and Nayek (1981) in West Bengal soils and Ruhal and Paliwal (1987) in Rajasthan soils. The present study, therefore, was undertaken to investigate the different forms of sulphur in some important soil series of Central Research Farm of MPKV, Rahuri with the following objectives: 1) To assess the different forms of sulphur and their distribution in profiles of soil series of central farm of MPKV, Rahuri. 2) To study the important physical and chemical properties of soil series of central farm of MPKV, Rahuri in relation to the forms of sulphur.

20 20 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Sulphur deficiency in soils is gradually becoming widespread in different soils of several states of India. Availability of sulphur is influenced by various soil factors and hence the status of different forms of sulphur in soils varies widely with nature of soil (Balanagoudar and Satyanarayana, 1990). Distribution of sulphur forms and their interrelationship with some important soil characteristics decide sulphur supplying power of soil by influencing its release and dynamics in soil. The present investigation was undertaken to study the sulphur status and its distribution in some important soil orders of Vertisol and Inceptisol of Central Research Farm, M.P.K.V., Rahuri. The literature is reviewed under the subheadings. 2.1 Physical and chemical properties of soil 2.2 Forms of sulphur in soil Total sulphur Organic sulphur Water soluble sulphur Sulphate sulphur Non-sulphate sulphur 2.3 Factors affecting different forms of sulphur 2.4 Relationship between different forms of sulphur

21 Physical and chemical properties of vertisol and inceptisol Soil texture Landey et al. (1982) found fine textured Indian vertisols to range usually from clay loam to silty clay to clay. The clay content range from 35 to 60 per cent and might content as high as 80 per cent, increasing progressively upto certain depth and then decreasing with increasing depth of profile. Silt fraction was high but sand fraction was less. Clay content varied from 42.5 to 62.5 per cent for black cotton soils of Maharashtra and Karnataka (Kate, 1982) and from 30.4 to 66.9 per cent for black cotton soils of Gujarat (Kaswala and Deshpande, 1983). Sharma and Dubey (1988) observed the clay content in vertisol of Madhya Pradesh range from 35.6 to 50 per cent, silt fraction 26 to 50 per cent and sand fraction 13 to 35 per cent with sand silt ratio of 0.27 to Subba Rao and Sekhon (1991) indicated variation in texture of important vertisols of India from clay. Deshmukh and Rangacharya (1992) described the texture of vertisol soil series of Akola as clay loam to clay with clay content in the range from 27 to 56 per cent. Trivedi et al. (1998) described the texture of Alfisols as silty clay to clay, Entisols as silty clay to clay and that of Vertisols as clayey. The clay per cent ranged from 30.8 to 43.00, 17.6 to 37.6 and 41.6 to per cent in case of Alfisols, Entisols and Vertisols, respectively.

22 22 Tripathi et al. (2005) studied some Aridisols of Haryana state. The soil texture ranged from sand to sandy clay loam with clay content ranged from 5.5 to 26.9 per cent Soil reaction (ph) Murthy et al. (1982) and Finck and Venkateswarlu, (1982) observed that the ph of soil generally showed increasing trend with depth in arid, semi-arid and dry humid areas and in low lying situations. Kasawala and Deshpande (1983) stated that black cotton soils of South Gujarat were neutral to alkaline with ph range of 6.7 to 8.6. Ambegaonkar et al. (1984) studied Vertisols of Parbhani and noted that ph vary from 8.1 to 8.8. Sharma and Dubey (1988) and Subba Rao and Sekhon (1991) observed the ph range from 7.5 to 9.1 in different Vertisol soil series of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Singh et al. (1995) studied soil ph of upland and lowland soils of Bihar. They found that in Pusaro and Karaya series soil ph ranged from 4.9 to 6.3 and 4.3 to 7.9, respectively. Adiga and Ananthanarayana (1996) studied twelve representative soil profiles of Karanataka for the ph which ranged from 3.4 to 6.3. Trivedi et al. (1998) studied twenty six soil profile samples of Madhya Pradesh which showed a ph range of 7.82, 7.62 and 8.36 in Alfisols, Entisols and Vertisols, respectively. Venkatesh and Satyanarayana (1999) stated that ph ranged from 7.11 to 8.63 in Vertisols of Karnataka. Trivedi et al. (2000) studied 18 profiles in Alfisol and Vertisol soils. It was

23 23 observed that soils were alkaline in nature with the value of 9.79 and 7.94 in Alfisols and Vertisols, respectively. Bhatnagar et al. (2002) reported that the ph of the soils generally showed increasing trend with depth in some profiles of Madhya Pradesh. Tripathi et al. (2005) studied some Aridisols of Haryana state and stated that soils were saline in nature with ph ranged from 7.6 to 8.7. Jat and Yadav (2006) studied eighty surface soil samples and observed that ph of the soil ranged from 7.7 to 9.0. Pareek (2007) studied one hundred and twenty surface soil samples of Pantnagar, Uttarakhand and noted that ph of these soils ranged from 6.2 to Soluble salts (E.C.) Dasog and Hadimani (1980) reported the EC value from 0.39 to 3.32 mmhos cm -1 for some vertisols of Karnataka. They indicated increasing trend of EC with depth. Similar observations were also recorded by Adinarayana and Subbarao (1981) for vertisols of Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. Finck and Venkateswarlu (1982) observed that water soluble salts increased with depth in Vertisols. They further revealed that sub soil salinity was a common problem in low lands. The EC values of Vertisols of Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh ranged from 0.4 to 3.1 mmhos cm -1. Balanagoudar and Satyanarayana (1990) revealed that there was increase in soluble salts as depth increased into the Vertisols and Alfisols. Subba Rao and Sekhon (1991) assessed the electrical conductivity of Saorol soil series ranged

24 24 from 0.18 to 0.66 mmhos cm -1 whereas for Shendvada soil series, it ranged from 0.31 to 0.68 mmhos cm -1. Trivedi et al. (1998) reported EC content of soils of Madhya Pradesh and found that it ranged from 0.20 to 0.44, 0.10 to 0.39 and 0.10 to 0.94 dsm -1 in Alfisols, Entisols and Vertisols, respectively. Trivedi et al. (2000) eighteen profiles of Madhya Pradesh were studied for their electrical conductivity which ranged from 1.3 to 2.7 and 0.2 to 6.7 dsm -1 in Alfisols and Inceptisols, respectively. Tripathi et al. (2005) studied some Aridisols of Haryana state, soil EC ranged from 0.11 to Jat and Yadav (2006) studied eighty surface soil samples and observed that E.C. of the soil were ranged from 1.05 to 4.75 dsm -1. Pareek (2007) studied one hundred and twenty surface soil samples of Pantnagar, Uttarakhand and noted that electrical conductivity of these soils ranged from 0.45 to 1.26 dsm Organic carbon Sehgal and Sohan Lal (1988) observed that Vertisols were low in organic matter, which decreased with depth. The organic matter of surface soil ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 per cent which remained practically unaltered upto 1 m depth and then decreased markedly in C horizons. The Vertisols of North Karnataka were low in organic matter (less than 0.5 per cent) and it remained uniform with depth (Dasog et al., 1990). Singh et al. (1995) studied soil organic carbon of upland and lowland soils of Bihar, they found that in Pusaro and

25 25 Karaya series soil organic carbon ranged from 1.0 to 4.3 and 1.2 to 5.4 g kg -1 respectively. Yersheemi et al. (1997) reported that the low status of organic carbon in sodic soil could be due to strong alkaline conditions in salt affected soils of Krishna command of Karnataka. Trivedi et al. (1998) studied the soils of Madhya Pradesh and stated that soils organic carbon content ranged from 1.8 to 4.7 g kg -1, 1.9 to 4.8 and 1.4 to 4.8 g kg -1 in Alfisols, Entisols and Vertisols, respectively. Venkatesh and Satyanarayana (1999) studied the organic carbon of Karnataka soils that ranged from 1 to 7 g kg -1. Trivedi et al. (2000) studied eighteen profiles of Madhya Pradesh for their organic carbon which ranged from 0.54 to 3.54 g kg -1 and 0.38 to 4.37 g kg -1 in Alfisols and Inceptisols, respectively. Tripathi et al. (2005) studied some Aridisols of Haryana state. The soil organic carbon ranged from 0.8 to 2.9 g kg -1. Jat and Yadav (2006) studied eighty surface soil samples and observed that organic carbon were ranged from 1.56 to 5.0 g kg -1. Pareek (2007) studied one hundred and twenty surface soil samples of Pantnagar, Uttarakhand and noted that organic carbon of these soils ranged from 7.2 to 36.1 g kg Calcium carbonate The content of calcium carbonate varied from traces to 10 per cent or more in Vertisol profile and its distribution was

26 26 either uniform or some times increased with depth of profile (Roy and Borde, 1962; Ray Chaudhari et al., 1963). Sharma and Bhargava (1973) reported that CaCO3 content of black soils of Tungabhadra catchment was upto 24 per cent as compared to 15.7 to 28.0 per cent in black cotton soils of South Gujarat (Kasawala and Deshpande, 1983) and 9.8 to 23.8 per cent in soils of Karnataka (Dasog and Hadimani, 1980). According to Sehgal and Sohan Lal (1988) the quantity of CaCO3 content in Indian Vertisols ranged from 0.5 to 20 per cent. However, some Vertisol soil series of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh had 1.3 to 11.6 per cent (Sharma and Dubey, 1988 and Subba Rao and Sekhon, 1991). Deshmukh and Rangacharya (1992) reported that CaCO3 content in Vertisols of Akola (Maharashtra) ranged from 0.6 to 4.5 per cent. Trivedi et al. (1998) studied the soils of Madhya Pradesh and stated that soil calcium carbonate content ranged from 2 to 125, 12 to 68 and 6 to 47 g kg -1 in Alfisols, Entisols and Vertisols, respectively. Venkatesh and Satyanarayana (1999) studied the calcium carbonate of Karnataka soils which ranged from 6.7 to 19 %. Trivedi et al. (2000) studied eighteen profiles of Madhya Pradesh for their calcium carbonate content which ranged from 32.1 to and 14.2 to g kg -1 in Alfisols and Inceptisols respectively. Tripathi et al. (2005) studied some Aridisols of Haryana state. The CaCO3 ranged from 2 to 36 g kg -1.

27 Forms of sulphur in soil Total sulphur : The total amount of sulphur present in soil gives an indication of the reserve of the soil, which changes by chemical or bacterial action into a available form. Sulphur normally occurs in primary rocks in the form of sulphides and tends to be higher in basic rocks than in the igneous rocks. Therefore, the content of sulphur in different soils depends upon nature of parent material from which it is derived as well as on the soil type. Chesnin and Yien (1951) found low concentration of sulphur in surface soils, but at depth calcium carbonate of several feet usually found at 100 ppm or more of sulphur. Kanwar and Mohan (1964) while working as the various forms of sulphur in Punjab soils reported that the alkaline soils contained 15.8 mg S/100 g of soil while acid soil contained 24.1 mg S/100g of soil. Bhardwaj and Pathak (1969) stated that the total sulphur varied from 84 to 168 ppm with an average of and 103 ppm in the first and second layers, respectively in Uttar Pradesh soils. Further, they found that the total sulphur content was high in top soil and low in lower depth in soils of Uttar Pradesh. Virmani and Kanwar (1971) found that total sulphur content varied from 110 to 272 ppm in surface horizons of six soil profiles from different agro-climatic zones of Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. The total sulphur content showed a decline with depth.

28 28 Bhan and Tripathi (1973) analysed twenty four soil samples at two depths (0-20 and cm) representing four broad soil groups viz., alluvial, Tarai and Bundelkhand and Vindhyan regions. They found that the total sulphur content ranged from 92.5 to 189 ppm with mean values of and ppm for surface and sub-surface soils, respectively. Lande et al. (1977) found that the total sulphur in soils ranged from 82.4 to ppm with an average of ppm in normal soils. In case of saline soils, total sulphur ranged from to ppm with an average of ppm indicating that the total sulphur in saline soil was quite high compared with normal soils. Ruhal and Paliwal (1978) stated that the total sulphur in Rajasthan soils varied from 100 to 3250 ppm with an average of ppm. Medium black soils contained more sulphur that light ones. Light textured soils showed enrichment in the lower zones, while mixed red and black soils of heavy texture showed less sulphur content in lower horizons. Mukhopadhyay and Mukhopadhyay (1980) indicated that relatively higher total sulphur content in soils of hill and tarai regions was due to the high organic sulphur and the average total sulphur content was ppm. They observed that total sulphur content in the surface soil layer (0-15 cm) tend to be greater than that of the subsurface layer (30-45 cm). Total sulphur of the other parts of India was also reported to decrease with increase in depth.

29 29 Douli and Nayek (1981) studied different forms of sulphur in three profiles of a catena belonging to red and lateritic soils under the western tropical region of Midnapore in West Bengal. Total sulphur content varied from 38 to 123 ppm with an average of ppm. They also stated that the total sulphur content declined with depth of profile. Douli and Bandyopadhyay (1983) observed that the total sulphur content in the soil profiles collected from coniferous forest tract of North Bengal varied from 368 to 2206 ppm with a mean of 1011 ppm and they also revealed that the profile of upland soils showed increase in total sulphur with increase in depth and in case of low land reverse trend was observed. Ganeshamurthy et al. (1989) found that the hill slope soils generally contained less total sulphur compared to coastal plain soils and followed a similar pattern of distribution of decreasing sulphur content in increasing depth. Misra et al. (1990) analysed total sulphur content in two profiles of Bhubaneshwar and Sambalpur (both Alfisols)and found that total sulphur content decreased with increase in depth in general and showed accumulation of sulphur in the lower depths. Balanagoudar and Satyanarayana (1990) found that total sulphur content from Vertisols and Alfisols of north Karnataka soils varied from 500 to 3500 ppm with mean of 1239 ppm and the non-sulphate sulphur mostly contributed to the total sulphur (89 %) followed by organic sulphur and sulphate

30 30 sulphur (2.5%). Total sulphur content increased with increase in depth of soil. Tiwari and Pandey (1990) obtained that the total sulphur content varied from to ppm in the soils of Varanasi region of eastern Uttar Pradesh. The total sulphur content in soil decreased with increase in depth of soil. Kher and Singh (1993) pointed out that the total sulphur contents of the soil ranged from 139 to 226 ppm with an average value of 183 ppm in the different locations of North Kashmir. They also stated that the surface soils of Sambal area contained the lowest amounts of total sulphur, whereas the highest in Tungmerg soils. Singh et al. (1993) studied about the sedentary soils of Chotanagpur of Bihar which classified mainly as Alfisols and Ultisols. They found that total sulphur content in those soils had a wide variation ranging from 212 to 1841 mg kg -1. Total sulphur content decreased with the depth of all soils. Hariram et al. (1993) studied total sulphur content in rice growing field of Uttar Pradesh. They stated the total sulphur content in the surface (0-25 cm) and sub-surface (25-50cm) ranged from 104 to 179 mg kg -1 and 110 to 170 mg kg -1 with an average of 153 and 248 mg kg -1, respectively. Singh et al. (1995) found that total S is ranged from to mg kg -1 in Pusaro series and to mg kg -1 in Karaya series, in Bihar soils. Adiga and Ananthanarayana (1996) studied vertical distribution of different forms of sulphur in rice fallow profiles of Karnataka. Total S content in this soil

31 31 ranged from 87 to 292 mg kg -1 and it decreased with increase in depth of the profile. Dwarkanath et al. (1998) studied sulphur status in Maharashtra state. The total sulphur content ranged from 1125 to 2525 mg kg -1 with an average of 1788 mg kg -1 in Vertisol soil series. It decreased with depth of soil profile. Trivedi et al. (2000) studied total sulphur in soil profiles of Madhya Pradesh and found that total sulphur content ranged from 68 to 666 and 94 to 866 mg kg -1 in Alfisols and Inceptisols, respectively and it decreased with depth. Bhatnagar et al. (2002) reported that total S in surface soil of Inceptisol and Vertisol ranged from 790 to 813 and 798 to 987 mg kg -1 with mean values of 800 and 892 mg kg -1, respectively. Higher amounts of total S was found in surface than in sub-surface soils in Shivepuri district of Madhya Pradesh. Raut and Mali (2003) studied forms of sulphur in soils of Latur region having total sulphur ranged between 25 to 120 ppm. Tripathi et al. (2005) studied forms of sulphur in some Aridisols of Haryana state and stated that total sulphur ranged from 92 to 440 mg kg -1. Jat and Yadav (2006) studied eighty surface soil samples and observed that total sulphur ranged from to g kg -1. Pareek (2007) studied one hundred and twenty surface soil samples of Pantnagar, Uttarakhand and noted that total sulphur of these soils ranged from to mg kg -1.

32 Organic sulphur It has been reported that much of sulphur exists in soils in organic form (Evans and Rost, 1945). Aidiyan (1964) revealed that the total sulphur was found with organic matter and it occurred in all the main fractions of humus. The humic acid of non-saline soils contained 0.58 to 0.67 per cent sulphur and fulvic acid contained 0.35 to 0.67 per cent sulphur. Virmani and Kanwar (1971) reported that in North Indian soils, per cent of total sulphur in alkaline soils was present in organic forms. They further reported that organic sulphur content varied from ppm in surface horizons in acid soils compared to per cent in case of alkaline soils. The organic sulphur showed declining trend in both the soils. Joshi et al. (1973) revealed that in desert soils sierozems, organic sulphur ranged from ppm which accounted for per cent of total sulphur. They also stated that other soil located in comparatively high rainfall areas like greyish brown, medium black, yellowish accounted for 50 to 80 per cent of total sulphur. Lande et al. (1977) reveled that organic sulphur ranged from 35.2 to 132 ppm with an average of 71.9 ppm in normal soils and from to ppm on saline soils. The average organic sulphur constituted about per cent and per cent of the total sulphur in case of normal and saline soils of Marathwada regions, respectively.

33 33 Mukhopadhyay and Mukhopadhyay (1979) found that organic sulphur content in soils of hill (189.6 ppm) and Tarai regions (124.3 ppm) were noticeably higher than those observed in lateritic (44.3 ppm), alluvial (57.8ppm) and coastal saline regions (86.8ppm). Organic sulphur decreased with increase in depth in all the soil profiles. Douli and Nayek (1981) stated that most of the sulphur present in acid, red and lateritic soil was organic in nature and organic sulphur content varied from 14 to 47 ppm with mean value of ppm. The organic sulphur generally decreased with depth and accounted for 29.1 to 48.8 per cent of the total sulphur. Singh and Sharma (1983) revealed that organic sulphur content was higher in surface soil samples (0-30 cm) compared to the subsurface soil samples (30-60 cm). Dwiwedi et al. (1983) found that organic sulphur amounted to 24 to 48.2 per cent and 17.1 to 20.1 per cent of the total sulphur in alluvial soils of Uttar Pradesh. Thirupathi Reddy et al. (1985) informed that organic sulphur ranged from 104 to 681 ppm in soils of Andhra Pradesh. Arora et al. (1988) studied the distribution of organic sulphur in 23 benchmark soils, representative of major soil series under crop cultivation in Punjab and they revealed that the organic sulphur ranged from 16.9 to 61.5 ppm. Tiwari and Pandey (1990) pointed out that organic sulphur ranged from to 70 ppm in the soils of Varanasi region of Uttar Pradesh and it decreased with increase in depth of soil.

34 34 Balanagoudar and Satyanarayana (1990) found that the organic sulphur varied from 8.4 to ppm with an average of 75.2 ppm and accounted for 0.8 to 20 per cent of the total sulphur in Vertisols and Alfisols soils of Karnataka. Further, they stated that lower values of organic sulphur at deeper layer were attributed to lower organic matter and surface soil contained higher organic matter sulphur. Hariram et al. (1993) found that organic sulphur ranged from 17 to 31 per cent and accounted for 26 per cent of total sulphur from rice growing soils of Uttar Pradesh. Singh et al. (1995) found that total S is ranged from to mg kg -1 and to 1365 mg kg -1 in Pusaro series and to mg kg -1 in Karaya series in Bihar soils. Adiga and Ananthanarayana (1996) studied vertical distribution of different forms of sulphur in rice fallow profiles of Karnataka. Organic S content in these soils ranged from 23 to 150 mg kg -1 and it decreased with increase in depth of the profile. The Vertisols of Maharashtra contained organic sulphur in the range of 27 to 370 mg kg -1 of soil in surface soil (Malewar and Ismail, 1997). Dwarkanath et al. (1998) studied sulphur status in Maharashtra state. The organic sulphur content ranged from 17.6 to 91.4 mg kg -1 with an average of mg kg -1 in Vertisol soil series. It decreased with depth of soil profile. Trivedi et al. (1998) studied different forms of sulphur in profiles of Madhya Pradesh. Organic + non-sulphate S ranged

35 35 from 74 to 539, 76 to 527 and 106 to 547 mg kg -1 in Alfisols, Entisols and Vertisols, respectively. Venkatesh and Satyanarayana (1999) studied oilseed growing Vertisols of North Karnataka and found 1108 to 4591 mg kg -1 of organic sulphur. Misal (1999) reported that organic sulphur content varied from 103 to 346 mg kg -1 with an average value of 228 mg kg -1 in the soils of Rahuri tahsil. Trivedi et al. (2000) studied organic sulphur in soil profiles of Madhya Pradesh and found that organic sulphur content ranged from 25 to 390 and 50 to 650 mg kg -1 in Alfisols and Inceptisols, respectively and it decreased with increase in depth in soil profile. Tripathi et al. (2005) studied forms of sulphur in some Aridisols of Haryana state and stated that organic sulphur ranged from 7.6 to 24.4 mg kg -1. Raut and Mali (2003) studied forms of sulphur in soils of Latur region having organic sulphur between 3 to 34 ppm. Jat and Yadav (2006) studied eighty surface soil samples and observed that organic sulphur ranged from 20.5 to 76.4 g kg -1. Pareek (2007) studied one hundred and twenty surface soil samples of Pantnagar, Uttarakhand and noted that organic sulphur of these soils ranged from to mg kg Sulphate sulphur Kanwar and Mohan (1964) found that the sulphate sulphur content in Punjab soil was 0.9 mg/100g soil. Perkovik

36 36 (1965) suggested that sulphate sulphur levels were low in surface horizons and increased with depth. Ahmed and Jha (1969) recorded that available sulphur content was higher in the alkaline group of soils than in neutral and acid soils of Bihar. Bhardwaj and Pathak (1969) observed that 0.15 per cent CaCl2 extractable sulphate sulphur varied in soils of Uttar Pradesh and contributed to 8.5 per cent of the total sulphur. Virmani and Kanwar (1971) revealed that amounts of easily soluble sulphate sulphur (0.15 per cent CaCl2) varied widely but in majority of soils it constituted only a fraction of total sulphur. Joshi et al. (1973) indicated that sulphate sulphur content varied from ppm. They observed highest amount in some soils of low rainfall areas that were alkaline in nature (Sierozem, desert and alluvial) while soils receiving high rainfall contained low amounts which might be attributed to the leaching losses. Bhan and Tripathi (1973) stated that sulphate sulphur varied from 9.0 to 52.0 ppm and 4.5 to 41.5 with an average of 18.2 and 14.4 ppm for surface and sub-surface soils, respectively. Lande et al. (1977) reported that the sulphate sulphur content in normal surface soils ranged from 8.4 to 42.0 ppm with an average of 15.9 ppm while in alkaline soils, it ranged from to ppm with an average of ppm. This amount contributed very small fraction to the total sulphur which was only per cent. They also observed that 35 per

37 37 cent of the total sample containing 5 to 10 ppm of CaCl2 extractable sulphate sulphur and these samples were classified as moderately deficient. In fine textured soils of Zimbabwe, Rowell and Grant (1977) recorded SO4-S content of 4.3 to 41.2 mg kg -1 of soil in surface soils and 2.7 to 49.7 mg kg -1 in subsurface soils. Mukhopadhyay and Mukhopadhyay (1980) observed that sulphate sulphur ranged from 0.6 to ppm and accounted for 0.25 to 65.1 per cent of the total sulphur with an average of 20 per cent in soil profiles of West Bengal. Douli and Nayek (1981) reported that in the soil profiles belonging to the red and lateritic soil in the West Bengal, sulphate sulphur found to be varied from 0.4 to 28 ppm with an average of 7.27 ppm and accounted for 1.1 to 45.9 per cent of total sulphur. Douli and Bandyopadhyay (1983) stated that in coniferous tract of North Bengal, sulphate sulphur content varied between 25 to 130 ppm with an average of 62.9 ppm. It accounted for 1.1 to 17.7 per cent (average 8.7 per cent) of the total sulphur. The contribution of sulphate sulphur to total sulphur was high in the surface than in the subsurface in all soil profiles except low land profile. Cheema and Arora (1984) found that sulphate sulphur in surface soils collected from Isewel, Swati, Khasikalan, Mundian and Ghari villages of Ludhiana were 1.1, 4.6, 5.3, 2.8 and 4.2 ppm, respectively with large variations from 0.3 to high as 56.0 ppm.

38 38 Thirupathi Reddy et al. (1985) observed that inorganic sulphate sulphur ranged from traces to ppm (0.01 M CaCl2 extract) in the soils of Andhra Pradesh. Badiger et al. (1985) found that sulphate sulphur content varied from 10 to 43.7 ppm in Entisol soils of Karnataka. Kolape (1987) studied rice growing soils of Konkan and stated that sulphate sulphur content of lateritic soil and medium black soils were 12.5 to 64.7 ppm and 6.25 to ppm, respectively. Arora et al. (1988) stated that the CaCl2 extractable sulphate sulphur ranged from 5.1 to 46.0 ppm in major soil series in Punjab. Douli and Guhathkurta (1988) observed that in the soils of West Bengal, sulphate sulphur ranged from 7 to 34 ppm with an average of 17.3 ppm and accounted for 6 to 13 per cent (with an average of 9.6 per cent) of the total sulphur. It declined with depth. The higher concentration of SO4-S in the surface might be due to greater plant and microbial activity and subsequent organic matter accumulation. Tiwari and Pandey (1990) stated that sulphate sulphur content ranged from 6.5 to 30.0 ppm in Varanasi region of Eastern Uttar Pradesh and decreased with increase in depth of soil. Balanagoudar and Satyanarayana (1990) reported that sulphate sulphur ranged from 2.8 to 250 ppm with an average of 29.3 ppm in North Karnataka soils and sulphate sulphur accounted a smaller fraction of the total sulphur. The sulphate sulphur increased with the increasing depth of soil in

39 39 some Vertisol soils due to leaching of soluble sulphate to deeper layers and precipitated as gypsum crystal. Hariram et al. (1993) noticed that sulphate sulphur in the surface and subsurface soils accounted about 13 per cent of total sulphur. The sulphate sulphur ranged from 8 to 24 and 8.5 to 22.5 ppm in surface (0-25 cm) and subsurface (25-50 cm) soils indicating SO4-2 -S decreased with depth of soil in rice growing soils of Uttar Pradesh. The higher concentration of sulphate sulphur might be due to greater plant and microbial activity and mineralization of organic matter. Malewar and Ismail (1997) reported that 54 per cent soils of Maharashtra were found to be low in available sulphur. They also noted that Western Maharashtra soils were more prone to its deficiency (63 %). Venkatesh and Satyanarayana (1999) observed that the sulphate sulphur ranged from 31 to 55 ppm with an average of 11.1 ppm and accounted for 0.5 per cent of total sulphur in Vertisols of North Karnataka. Dwarkanath et al. (1998) studied sulphur status in Maharashtra state. The sulphate sulphur content ranged from 17 to 225 mg kg -1 with an average of mg kg -1 in Vertisol soil series. It decreased with depth of soil profile. Trivedi et al. (1998) studied different forms of sulphur in profiles of Madhya Pradesh. Sulphate S ranged from 3.5 to 19.2, 3.2 to 22.5 and 3.2 to 20.4 mg kg -1 in Alfisols, Entisols and Vertisols, respectively. Trivedi et al. (2000) studied sulphate sulphur in soil profiles of Madhya Pradesh and found that sulphate sulphur