Digestion. Generalized Digestive System. Salivary glands (mucin) to lubricate. 2 (incl. stomach) Tongue for chemoreception.
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1 Digestion 24 Generalized Digestive System Salivary glands (mucin) to lubricate (incl. stomach) Tongue for chemoreception (Eckert ) 1
2 Foregut -Conducting, Storage, Digestion -Esophagus and Stomach Crop in some for storage/regurgitation e.g., Some birds use to grind with pebbles and sand Stomach - food storage - begins digestion (e.g., pepsin) - mechanical mixing (muscular walls) - Monogastric (1 chamber, carnivores and omnivores) - Digastric (> 1 chamber) 26 Foregut Monogastric Stomach - strong muscular sac/tube - sphincters at both ends mucus from goblet cells of gastric pit - HCl from parietal cells of gastric gland - pepsinogen from chief cells of gastric gland 1 2 (Eckert 15-17)
3 Foregut Digastric Stomach -herbivores -regurgitation 3 (Eckert 15-18) Domestic cattle, 1L/min gas! (methane and CO 2 ) -digestive enzymes 4 -anaerobic fermentation by symbiotic bacteria and protozoans ( Carbohydrates -> sugars and gases ) sugars, amino acids, short FAs into 28 blood 2 1 Midgut -Chemical digestion and Absorption (~ small intestine) -from stomach through pyloric sphincter into duodenum -alkaline 1-Duodenum (mucus + secretions from liver, pancreas) Bile duct from liver -Bile breaks up fats and neutralizes acids Pancreatic Juice -proteases, lipases, carbohydrases, antacid 2-Jejunum (digestion and absorption) 3-Ileum (mostly absorption) -Internal symbionts help digest, provide nutrition, vitamins -Gas exchange in some air-breathing fishes 29 (Eckert 15-31) 3
4 Midgut Anatomy: -longitudinal smooth muscle -circular smooth muscle -epithelium -submucosa (connective tissue) -mucosa (mucous membrane) Epithelial cells sloughed rapidly (2x10 10 cells/day), lining replaced every few days (Eckert 15-19) 30 Midgut -Intestinal Epithelium, SURFACE AREA -aids absorption of digested nutrients -epithelium arrangement: -circular folds -villi with blood vessels -central lacteal (lymph system) -microvilli (2x10 5 per mm 2 ) (Eckert 15-19) (Eckert 15-20) 31 4
5 Midgut -Intestinal Epithelium, SURFACE AREA -surface of microvilli: -covered with glycocalyx -mucus and water mixed in -absorption through epithelial cells -intestinal chyme -microvilli with actin, interacts with myosin for movement (Eckert 15-20) 32 Villi with microvilli (brush border) (Eckert 15-20) 33 5
6 Hindgut -Water and Ion absorption; Defecation -reabsorb water and ions at end of small intestine (ilieum) and from large intestine/colon -feces into cloaca/rectum for excretion -cloaca can also be site of urine modification (e.g., birds) -bacterial digestion in hindgut fermenters (especially in cecum) -coprophagy/cecotrophy (e.g., rabbits) 34 Hindgut -Water and Ion absorption; defecation hindgut fermenters horse rabbit (Eckert 15-22) 35 6
7 Motility Contraction of gut and movement of contents: 1. Propulsion, expulsion 2. Mixing and grinding (enzymes, mechanical digestion) 3. Stirring so brush border/epithelial lining gets nutrients Peristalsis -longitudinal muscle -circular muscle (Eckert 15-24) Move food along Movement Kneading (Eckert 15-25) Regurgitation, Vomiting? 37 7
8 ABSORPTION: -Across epithelium of brush border (microvilli) -Glycocalyx has enzymes for final cleavage disaccharidases, aminopeptidases, phosphatases -Simple Diffusion - fat-soluble substances - small water soluble substances through regulated aquaporins - down concentration or electrochemical gradients -Facilitated Diffusion and 2 Active Transport - monosaccharides and amino acids - transporter proteins - down conc. gradient or -coupled to Na + gradient (Na/K-ATPase) 38 (Eckert 15-37, See Hill 4-19) 39 8
9 ABSORPTION -Active Transport -amino acids with ~specific transporters coupled to Na+ -Lipids -products cross into epithelial cells (monoglycerides, fatty acids, glycerol) -reconstructed into triglycerides -formed into chylomicrons using cholesterol and phospholipids -chylomicrons exocytosed -taken into central lacteal and into lymph system 40 Lipids ER Golgi Lacteal (15-38) 41 9
10 Nutrient Transport in Blood -lipids (chylomicrons) into blood from lymph at thoracic duct -sugars and amino acids into capillaries of villi -to liver via hepatic portal vein sugars converted to glycogen for storage 42 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Gut -Lots of water and electrolytes secreted into lumen -Need to recover -Most via lower small intestine (ileum) -Osmotic gradient b/c absorb salts, carbos, amino acids -Tips of villi -Countercurrent exchange with high Na+ (Cl - follows) to facilitate water reabsorption 43 10
11 Secretions etc. ileum (15-39) = 44 Los Secretions Alimentary canal is largest endocrine and exocrine gland Salivary gland Secretory cells of stomach and intestine Secretory cells of liver and pancreas Water, ions, mucus, enzymes Bile (fat digestion) -created in liver, stored in gall bladder -also gets rid of some waste products metabolized by liver -Why is your poop brown? (bilirubin, iron) 45 11
12 Los Secretions (order and triggers) Gastric Pepsin (pepsinogen) from chief cells -response to: 1 parasymp. stim. 2 gastrin -breaks peptide bonds HCl (15-35) Mucus from goblet cells -protects gut lining -works with alkaline electrolytes in glycocalyx 46 Los Secretions (order and triggers) Gastric Gastrin from endocrine cells of distal stomach mucosa -response to: 1 gastric chyme with proteins 2 stomach stretch (gastric distension) - binds to smooth muscle - stimulates stomach motility - stimulates HCl and pepsin release Intestine Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) from duodenum -response to: 1 entry of fats and sugars - acts to stop gastric secretion and motility ~opposite effects (also Enterogastric Reflex and sympathetic stimulation) 47 12
13 48 Control of Los Secretions Presence of Food stimulates: Chemoreceptors lead to activation: 1 Autonomic Efferent Neurons 2 GI hormones into blood stream -stimulates liver, pancreas, gut Mental influences -conscious decisions -learned smells, sounds -Pavlovian response Gastrointestinal secretions controlled by hormones: -endocrine cells of gastric and intestinal submucosa -complicated, varies in areas of gut 49 13
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15 Vitamins and Minerals Vit A (retinol, retinal; rhodopsin) Water Soluble: B Vitamins, Vitamin C Lipid Soluble: Vits A, D, E, K Metalloproteins (e.g., hemoglobin) 52 Digestive Systems Transit time (time to digest), cost, and anatomy variable: -Food quality -Body Size -Temperature (ectotherms) 53 (Eckert 15-11) (Eckert 15-12) 15
16 (Eckert 15-16) 54 Gut Plasticity Alter gut size, activity (reversible) -Sustained increased metabolism can increase bird gut length by 1/5 -Mammals increase GI tract mass 3-4x post-hibernation 55 16
17 Gut Plasticity Alter gut size, activity (reversible) (Eckert 15-23) -Some infrequently-feeding snakes: - intestine 2x larger within 2 days - microvilli length and area up 400% - glucose transport rate up as much as 22x - other transporters also up-regulated (e.g., a.a. absorption) 56 Alkaline Tide 57 17
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