Creativity and Terror Management: Evidence That Creative Activity Increases Guilt and Social Projection Following Mortality Salience

Transcription

1 Joural of Persoality ad Social Psychology 1999, Vol. 77, No Copyright 1999 by the America Psychological Associatio. Ic. " /99/S3.00 Creativity ad Terror aagemet: Evidece That Creative Activity Icreases Guilt ad Social Projectio Followig ortality Saliece Jamie Ardt ad Jeff Greeberg Uiversity of Arizoa Tom Pyszczyski Uiversity of Colorado at Colorado Sprigs Sheldo Solomo Skidmore College Jeff Schimel Uiversity of Arizoa The preset research, based o the ideas of O. Rak (1932/1989) ad E. Becker (1973), was desiged to test the hypotheses that egagig i creative expressio after persoal mortality has bee made saliet will lead to both icreased feeligs of guilt ad a desire to ehace social coectedess. I Study 1, the authors used a 2 (mortality saliece vs. cotrol) X 2 (creative pretask vs. ocreative pretask) betweesubjects factorial desig ad measured self-report guilt. Results idicated that participats who were remided of their death ad completed the creative pretask expressed more guilt tha all other participats. I Study 2 this effect was replicated with a modificatio of the creativity treatmet. I Study 3, the same coditios leadig to icreased guilt also led mortality-saliet creative-task participats to express higher levels of social projectio, a idex of perceived social coectedess. Implicatios of these results for creativity, the iterpersoal ature of guilt, ad terror maagemet theory are briefly discussed. Cotemporary social psychological discourse reflects a burgeoig iterest i the topics of creativity, guilt, ad the awareess of death. For example, researchers have bee explorig the dispositioal ad cotextual factors that affect creativity ad itrisic motivatio (e.g., Amabile, 1983; Csikszetmihalyi, 1991; Deci & Rya, 1985; Eiseberger & Armeli, 1997). Recet theoretical ad methodological developmets have advaced our uderstadig of factors relatig to guilt as well (e.g., Higgis, 1987; Joes & Kugler, 1993; Tagey, 1990; Tagey, iller, Flicker, & Barlow, 1996). Additioally, studies have revealed a variety of psychological defeses used to maage the potetial for terror egedered by the uiquely huma awareess of mortality (e.g., Floria & ikulicer, 1997; Greeberg et al., 1990; cgregor et al., 1998). Despite this attetio, creativity, guilt, ad terror maagemet are curretly ooverlappig areas of social psychological iquiry, ad empirical work coectig these topics has yet to be doe. Iterestigly, Otto Rak (1929/1978) posited a itimate relatioship amog these costructs 70 years ago; specifically, he theorized that itimatios of mortality reder creative actio a source Jamie Ardt, Jeff Greeberg, ad Jeff Schimel, Departmet of Psychology, Uiversity of Arizoa; Sheldo Solomo, Departmet of Psychology, Skidmore College; Tom Pyszczyski, Departmet of Psychology, Uiversity of Colorado at Colorado Sprigs. This research was partially supported by Grats ad from the Natioal Sciece Foudatio. We thak Nea Nerham for her reliable assistace throughout this project ad Nolaa Nerham for her role as experimeter i Study 3. Correspodece cocerig this article should be addressed to Jamie Ardt, who is ow at the Departmet of Psychology, Uiversity of issouri, Columbia, issouri Electroic mail may be set to amdtj@missouri.edu. of guilt. Drawig from Rak (1932/1989) ad Becker (1971, 1973), the preset research was desiged to test the hypotheses that egagig i a creative actio uder coditios of mortality saliece (S) would lead both to icreased feeligs of guilt ad, as a result, to a desire to ehace social coectedess. The Bright ad Dark Sides of Creativity Creativity has log bee viewed i a very positive light by both lay people ad academics. The idea that creative actio represets "ma's eed to actualize himself, to become his potetialities" (Rogers, 1961, p. 354) is cetral to humaistic psychology ad the may theories geerated by this perspective. This focus o the bright side of creativity cotiues to ispire cotemporary coceptios of the costruct ad has geerated a wide body of research (for a review, see Amabile, 1996). For example, accordig to Deci ad Rya's (e.g., 1995) self-determiatio theory, the "self develops through the ogoig sythetic resolutio of the iteractio betwee the active, itegrative orgaism ad the challeges of the eviromet" (p. 34). Uder optimal circumstaces, this resolutio results i a autoomous, itrisically motivated, ad creative idividual. Amabile ad colleagues have also hypothesized ad demostrated a lik betwee itrisic motivatio ad creativity (e.g., Amabile, 1983). From this ad other related perspectives, it is the eviromet that costricts the idividual ad stifles his or her creativity. Research has show that factors adversely affectig creativity iclude evaluatio expectatio (Amabile, 1979), competitio (Amabile, 1982a), restricted choice (Amabile & Gitomer, 1984), ad reward for the task (Amabile, Heessey, & Grossma, 1986). Oe recet directio of this research program has bee to examie ot just what iflueces creativity but also the effects of creative task egagemet o other aspects of behavior. Coti, 19

2 20 ARNDT ET AL. Amabile, ad Pollak (1995) iduced participats to write creatively or ot creatively about a passage they just read. Results idicated that participats who egaged themselves creatively showed ehaced log-term retetio of iformatio from the readig passage. Like most of the studies i the literature, however, this research focused o the positive ad actualizig cosequeces of creative egagemet, whether they be fosterig autoomy (Deci & Rya, 1987), reflectig itrisic motivatio (Amabile, 1983), or ehacig learig (Dweck, 1986). Oe importat qualificatio to the view that creativity is udermied by extrisic cotigecies is offered by the work of Eiseberger ad colleagues. From their perspective, uder certai coditios, the presece of a saliet reward may ot oly fail to adversely affect creativity (e.g., Eiseberger & Armeli, 1997; Eiseberger & Camero, 1996) but may also icrease creativity (Eiseberger, Armeli, & Pretz, 1998; but for a discussio of issues associated with this research see Eiseberger & Camero, 1998; Heessey & Amabile, 1998; Lepper, 1998; Sasoe & Harackiewicz, 1998). This suggests that creativity may ot always be motivated by a purely itrisic desire for persoal growth. Rak (1932/1989) offered a complex view of creativity i the early part of the 20th cetury. Rak recogized the cetral importace of creativity as a positive expressio of the life force ad actually helped ispire the humaistic psychology movemet (Kramer, 1995). However, he also explored the dark side of creativity. He was deeply cocered throughout his career with the relatio betwee creativity ad a idividual's costructio of a uique persoality, ad he viewed the creative expressio of the artist as the primary metaphor through which to uderstad the creatio of a uique idetity: They must ultimately... carve their ow idividuality out of the collective ideology that prevails ad that they themselves have accepted, like the sculptor who carves his figures out of raw stoe. (1932/1989, p. 368) Ideed, ackio's research o architects i the early 1960s suggested that there was a lik betwee the itegratio of persoality (as described by Rak) ad creativity. However, as ackio (1962) oted, Rak recogized ot oly the actualizig potetial of persoal developmet ad creative expressio but also the isecurity that it might geerate. Thus, forces restrictig idividuatio emaate ot oly from cotrollig social cotexts but from the idividual as well. Rak, heavily iflueced by the philosophy of Nietzsche, preseted his ideas i the cotext of a developmetal framework i which the child struggles to differetiate himself or herself from the primary caregivers (i.e., the parets) by a process of idividuatio maifested psychologically through the developmet ad fuctio of the creative will. As Nietzsche (1885/1961) wrote, The spirit... wats to capture freedom ad be lord... it will struggle for victory with the great drago.... What is the great drago which the spirit o loger wats to call lord ad God? The great drago is called "Thou shalt." But the spirit... says "I will!" To create freedom for itself ad a sacred No eve to duty... a sacred Yes is eeded, for the sport of creatio: the spirit ow wills its ow will, the spirit sudered from the world ow wis its ow world, (p. 55) Cosequetly, Rak proposed that we become idividuals iitially by a act of egatio (i.e., by refusig to costatly coform to the demads of our parets e.g., "No, I will ot wear that shirt that you wat me to") that is evetually trasformed ito a act of affirmatio ("I will do this myself). Similarly, Rak argued that all creative activity is iitiated by a act of egatio (i that creative idividuals refuse to accept socially agreed-upo reality i its curret form just say o to reality!) that is evetually trasformed ito a act of affirmatio through a creative act that reders the world i accordace with the idividual's imagiative sese of how it should be. However, the act of egatio is ot without cost. I aticipatio of both existetial psychodyamic theory (e.g., Becker, 1962, 1973) ad attachmet theory (e.g., Bowlby, 1969), Rak poited out that the parets are the child's source of protectio from vulerability ad death. Therefore, by movig apart from the security-providig parets, idividuatio through creative willig exposes the child to the isecurity of his or her mortal fragility. Of course, evetually the yougster comes to the realizatio that the parets caot protect him or her from all vulerabilities (Solomo, Greeberg, & Pyszczyski, 1991), ad at that poit the eed for security is trasferred to somethig larger, amely, the child's culture ad the social coectios that it provides. Yet, the coflict remais fudametally the same. Throughout life, idividuatio through creative actio is achieved at the expese of the securityprovidig idetificatio with that which is beyod oeself. This, the, for Rak, is the problem with actig creatively: the threat to social coectio. Whereas previous theory ad research attests to the positive impact of creativity, Rak's ideas suggest that creative expressio does ideed have a dark side. Oe of the hallmark criteria of a creative work is that it be origial (cf. Barro, 1968); that is, it eeds to be differet from what others have doe. Whe people egage themselves creatively, they are expressig somethig uique that distiguishes them from others. To the extet that the expressio of the creative will is the vehicle through which people egage i the process of idividuatio, creative egagemet may threate the delicate psychological balace betwee the eeds to stick out ad fit i (Becker, 1973; cf. Brewer, 1991). Cosistet with this aalysis are the may examples of creative artists (e.g., Schubert, Stravisky, Va Gogh) ad scietists (e.g., Copericus, Galileo, Darwi) whose work was iitially widely rejected ad ofte remaied so util after they died. 1 Terror aagemet Theory, Belogigess, ad Creativity Accordig to terror maagemet theory (Greeberg, Pyszczyski, & Solomo, 1986; Solomo et al., 1991), idividuals eed to maitai social approval to protect themselves from the potetial for terror associated with the juxtapositio of havig a biological proclivity for self-preservatio ad beig aware of oe's ievitable mortality. From this perspective, the motive to fit i leads to culturally appropriate behavior that cosesually validates oe's beliefs ad is thus likely to icrease faith i oe's worldview ad oe's value, which, i tur, affords protectio from mortality cocers. Cosistet with this aalysis, remidig participats of 1 Certaily there are also examples of creative idividuals who have bee embraced for their creativity. We retur to this issue i the Geeral Discussio sectio.

3 DEATH, CREATIVITY, AND GUILT 21 their mortality (S) leads to a variety of efforts o the part of the participats to stregthe faith i the worldview, icludig icreased likig of those who support oe's worldview ad dislikig of those who threate it (worldview defese; e.g., Greeberg, Simo, Pyszczyski, Solomo, & Chatel, 1992), harsher judgmets agaist those who violate moral priciples (e.g., Floria & ikulicer, 1997), icreased aggressio toward worldview threateers (cgregor et al., 1998), icreased bias i the miimal group settig (Harmo-Joes, Greeberg, Solomo, & Simo, 1996), ad icreased social cosesus estimates for importat attitudes (e.g., Pyszczyski et al., 1996). Iterestigly, the S treatmet used i these studies does ot geerally create self-reported egative affect, ad these effects are ot mediated by self-reported affect. oreover, S effects have bee obtaied by idepedet researchers i a umber of coutries (e.g., i Israel by Floria & ikulicer, 1997; i Caada by Baldwi & Wesley, 1996; i Germay by Ochsma & Reichelt, 1994; i the Netherlads by Dechese, Greeberg, Ardt, & Schimel, 1998) usig a rage of operatioalizatios of S (e.g., fear-of-death scales i Greeberg, Simo, Harmo-Joes et al., 1995; fatal accidet footage i Nelso, oore, Olivetti, & Scott, 1997; sublimial death primes i Ardt, Greeberg, Pyszczyski, & Solomo, 1997), ad a variety of aversive cotrol coditios have failed to replicate these effects (for a thorough review of terror maagemet theory ad research, see Greeberg, Solomo, & Pyszczyski, 1997). Because maitaiig a sese of social coectio serves the vital fuctio of protectig idividuals from cocers associated with mortality, threateig social coectio i situatios where such cocers are saliet should elicit egative cosequeces for the idividual that might ot otherwise maifest themselves. Specifically, Rak argued that creativity may at times lead to feeligs of guilt over the disruptio of social coectio. I summarizig Rak's thikig o this issue, eaker (1982) wrote, Guilt arises i the wake of separatio because the creative selfassertio sigals oppositio to aother part of the self which seeks oeess ad mergig with a iteralized paretal image. Thus, guilt, as we have said before, arises i the face of the oppositio iheret i a duality, (p. 60) For Rak, therefore, guilt takes o a existetial character to the extet that it reflects the isecurity associated with idividua'o. Because the idetificatio with others provides security i the face of mortality, ad because the perceptio that oe has acted creatively implies separatio from the collective, we hypothesized that creative actio uder coditios of S would cause feeligs of guilt. Our first two studies were desiged to ivestigate this idea. Study 1 The purpose of our iitial study was to test the hypothesis that whe mortality cocers are aroused, creativity will lead to feeligs of guilt. Followig a S or cotrol treatmet, participats were ecouraged to either be creative or ot be creative, ad they the completed a self-report measure of guilt. Whe operatioalizig these costructs, we wated to begi our ivestigatio of creativity i a existetial cotext by usig a established maipulatio of creativity. A survey of the literature, however, revealed that such maipulatios are rare, as creativity more ofte teds to be assessed as a depedet variable. As previously oted, oe recet study that successfully maipulated creative actio was Coti et al. (1995). Therefore, we used procedures ad materials developed by Coti et al.; specifically, participats read a passage o dreamig ad the wrote a story usig characters from the passage. Creative egagemet was maipulated through pretask istructios: I the creative coditio, participats were asked to read a descriptio of a dream, imagie that they will face a pael of experts, ad geerate the most iterestig questios about dreams that they could thik of. Coti et al. argued i their research that this pretask led to more creative stories by activatig a creative orietatio to the tasks. Participats i fee cotrol coditio simply rewrote fee dream while egagig i a word substitutio exercise. To measure feeligs of guilt, participats completed fee State Guilt scale of fee Guilt Ivetory (Joes & Kugler, 1993; Kugler & Joes, 1992). If egagig oeself creatively after S leads to icreased guilt, the participats remided of their death ad creatively egaged should report higher levels of guilt relative to those who do ot thik about death or who cotemplate mortality but do ot receive fee creativity treatmet. We had o strog predictio about whether a weaker tred for icreased guilt would emerge amog o-s creative-pretask participats. O fee oe had, creative actio may lead to slight icreases i guilt feat are augmeted whe participats have thought about death. O fee other had, guilt may oly emerge as a cosequece of creativity whe mortality cocers are activated. I either case, fee key predictio is feat after S ad creative egagemet, guilt will be sigificatly ehaced. Coders also rated fee creativity of the stories geerated ad fee pretask resposes o fee basis of fee guidelies proposed by Amabile (1982b) to determie whether creative pretask participats wrote stories feat were more creative tha those of ocreative pretask participats, as foud by Coti et al. (1995). We also had a secodary reaso for ratig fee creativity exercises, which, although tagetial to our primary hypothesis, might be iterestig. Because of fee hypothesized egative cosequeces of creative expressio followig S, participats may show less creativity o the creativity pretask ad i their stories followig S. 2 2 Oe might also thik that ratig the creativity of the pretask ad stories would coceivably eable us to assess the mediatig role of creativity after S o guilt. It is importat to ote, however, that the iterpretatio of such aalyses must be approached with cautio as there may be two opposig iflueces o the maifest relatioship betwee creativity ratigs ad guilt scores. After S, people who exhibit high creativity may experiece more guilt. However, the same theoretical aalysis suggests that people experiecig the most guilt while egagig i the task may choose to show the least creativity. Cosequetly, this bidirectioal ifluece could result i a correlatio betwee creativity ad guilt close to zero. If this were to happe, withi-cell correlatios would ot be expected to show a strog relatioship betwee the variables, ad a aalysis of covariace would ot be expected to reduce the iteractive effects of S ad creativity o guilt. As it tured out, across all three studies, aalyses of covariace did ot compromise the critical iteractios, ad withi-cell correlatios did ot show cosistet or strog relatioships betwee studies. For example, i Study 1, withi the S creative-task coditio, there was a moderate, although osigificat, correlatio betwee the creativity of participat's stories ad guilt, r(ll) =.45, p =.15, suggestig that the more creative participats were, the more guilt they experieced. However, i Studies 2 ad 3, this correlatio did ot eve approach sigificace (all rs <.14, ps >.55).

4 22 ARNDT ET AL. Participats ad Desig ethod Sixtee male ad 31 female itroductory psychology studets at the Uiversity of Arizoa participated i the experimet i exchage for partial course credit. Participats were radomly assiged to coditios i a 2 (S vs. detal pai) X 2 (creative pretask vs. ocreative pretask) betweesubjects desig. The depedet measure was participats' feeligs of guilt as measured by a slightly modified versio of the State Guilt scale of the Guilt Ivetory (Joes & Kugler, 1993; Kugler & Joes, 1992). Procedure The procedures ad cover story regardig the creativity exercises were based o those developed by Coti et al. (1995). Upo arrivig at the laboratory, the participats listeed as the experimeter, who was blid to the coditios, itroduced the study as oe that compared differet types of educatioal materials ad how they related to persoality characteristics. Three to 5 participats per sessio were told that they would first complete a packet of persoality questioaires. They were further istructed that because psychology studets were participatig i this phase of the study, they would read a passage o dreamig that was relevat to psychology, write a story about it, ad later aswer some questios about it. Before doig this, however, they would complete a exercise o dreamig so that the researchers could get a idea of their thoughts o the subject. Participats were iformed that they would also complete some other persoality questioaires that were beig pretested for use i future studies. Participats were assured of the aoymity of their resposes, ad, to esure their privacy, they completed all materials i adjacet idividual cubicles. I additio, participats eclosed all of their resposes i blak evelopes ad placed the evelopes i a box located i their cubicle. S. Participats siged a coset form, were give the first packet of questioaires, ad were asked to complete them with their first, atural resposes. The packet of questioaires cotaied a filler questioaire followed by either the S treatmet or the detal pai cotrol treatmet. The S treatmet (Roseblatt, Greeberg, Solomo, Pyszczyski, & Lyo, 1989) cosisted of havig participats respod to two ope-eded questios: "Please briefly describe the emotios that the thought of your ow death arouses i you" ad "Jot dow, as specifically as you ca, what you thik will happe to you physically as you die ad oce you are physically dead." The detal pai cotrol treatmet cosisted of parallel questios with respect to the experiece of detal pai. The ext questioaire was the Positive ad Negative Affect Schedule Expaded Form (PANAS-X; Watso & Clark, 1992) self-report mood scale. This scale was icluded to determie if the S treatmet egedered egative affect idepedet of the creativity exercise. Creativity treatmet. After fiishig the persoality questioaires, participats were give the pretask creativity maipulatio, asked to read the istructios, ad istructed to complete the assiged task i the ext 10 mi or so. I the creative coditio, participats were preseted with a descriptio of a dream, asked to imagie that they had the dream, ad told that they would later have the opportuity to ask a pael of experts about the dream ad dreams i geeral. They were the asked to write the three most iterestig ad uusual questios about dreams they could thik of i the space provided. As discussed by Coti et al. (1995), the purpose of this procedure was to iduce a creative orietatio to the tasks. Participats i the ocreative coditios were preseted with the same dream ad were asked to rewrite the dream while substitutig certai words followig a key that was provided (e.g., zoo tor pet shop, he for she; cf. Coti et al., 1995). After the pretask, participats were give the readig passage ad told others had foud it quite iterestig. They were asked to read the passage i whatever way was best for them, ad they were iformed that we were just iterested i what they foud iterestig ad their ideas about it. Participats were give 15 mi to complete the readig. The passage was a three-page article from a collectio of The New York Times articles o psychology (Golema, 1991). The article was titled "Do Dreams Really Cotai Importat Secret eaig?" ad it discussed differet perspectives o this questio as well as compromise positios. Participats were the told that they would ow do a story-writig exercise ad that they should ot worry about spellig or grammar. As with the other materials, participats were asked to read the istructios ad were give a blak evelope. The istructios asked participats to write a story usig at least two people from the article as characters ad stated that it could ivolve aythig they wished as log as it somehow related to dreamig. Whe they were fiished, the participats were told to put their story i the evelope ad the evelope i the box with the others. Guilt measuremet. The experimeter retured after approximately 15 mi ad admiistered the State Guilt scale of the Guilt Ivetory (Joes & Kugler, 1993; Kugler & Joes, 1992). The scale cosists of 10 items that participats respoded to o 5-poit scales with edpoits of 1 = veryutrue of me or strogly disagree ad 5 = very true of me or strogly agree (e.g., "I curretly feel calm ad worry-free" ad "At the momet, I do't feel particularly guilty about aythig I have doe"). Previous research attests to the scale's reliability (Crobach's alpha for me ad wome college studets of.82) ad discrimiat ad coverget validity (Joes & Kugler, 1993; Kugler & Joes, 1992; for a review see Joes, Kugler, & Adams, 1995). Scores o this measure are strogly associated with scores o other guilt ivetories, such as the Persoal Feeligs Questioaire (Harder & Lewis, 1986) ad the Perceived Guilt Idex (Otterbacher & uz, 1973), but are ot strogly related to most other emotios (Kugler & Joes, 1992). For example, with the exceptio of guilt, it is ot related to ay other of Izard's differetial emotio scales (Izard, 1977). Joes ad Kugler (1993) also foud that scores o the Guilt Ivetory are strogly associated with adjectives theoretically liked to guilt. For the preset purposes, we adjusted questios i the scale that referred to feeligs or experieces "i the past week" to refer more specifically to feeligs "at the momet." After completig all materials, participats were thoroughly probed for suspicio, debriefed, thaked for their time, ad compesated with experimetal credits. Guilt Ivetory Results The primary depedet measure was participats' scores o the measure of state guilt. To test the hypothesis that iducig a creative mode after participats thought about their death would icrease guilt feeligs, we coducted a 2 (S vs. detal pai) X 2 (creative pretask vs. ocreative pretask) aalysis of variace (ANOVA) o scores from the State Guilt scale. Iitial aalyses icluded sex as a variable, but o mai or iteractio effects were foud (all Fs < 2.39, ps >,13), ad thus it is ot metioed further. This aalysis revealed a mai effect for creativity, F(\, 46) = 7.34, p =.01, with creative pretask participats reportig more guilt tha ocreative pretask participats (s = 30.1 ad 25.3, respectively). This effect, however, was qualified by the predicted iteractio betwee creativity ad S, F(l, 46) = 6.37, p <.02. Cell meas are preseted i Table 1. To more specifically test our hypothesis, we coducted plaed cotrasts o the guilt scores. I the first cotrast we compared S creative-pretask participats with participats i the other three coditios. Cosistet with our predictios, whe participats thought about their mortality ad the completed the creative pretask, they showed icreased guilt relative to all other coditios, t(46) = 3.32, p <.01 ( = 32.7 ad collapsed = 26.1,

5 DEATH, CREATIVITY, AND GUILT 23 Table 1 Cell eas for the Two-Way Iteractio of ortality Saliece ad Creative Pretask o Guilt i Study 1 Pretask Creative Nocreative ortality saliet Detal p respectively). A secod cotrast, i which S ocreative-pretask participats ad detal pai participats were compared, was margially sigificat, f(46) = \J5,p =.09 ( = 23.7 ad collapsed = 27.3, respectively). I a third cotrast we foud that the creativity pretask had o effect o guilt withi the detal pai coditios (t < 1), suggestig that it was the uique combiatio of S ad the creative pretask that led to icreased feeligs of guilt. 3 Supplemetal Aalyses Creativity. To assess whether the cotet of what participats wrote durig the creative exercises differed as a fuctio of S or pretask, we had two coders (blid to experimetal coditios) rate the creativity of the questios for the creative-pretask participats ad the stories for all participats, followig the guidelies proposed by Amabile (1982b). Ratigs were made o 5-poit scales, with 1 beig the least creative ad 5 beig the most creative. The correlatios betwee the coders' ratigs were acceptable for both the questios ad the stories, r(24) =.87 ad r(47) =.75, respectively, ps <.001. A 2 (S vs. detal pai) X 2 (creative pretask vs. ocreative pretask) ANOVA o the creativity of the stories revealed o effects (all Fs < 1.44, ps >.23). Iterestigly, although the pretask iteracted with S to affect guilt, it did ot affect the creativity of the stories writte. A pairwise compariso of the creativity of the questios participats geerated i the S ad detal pai creative-pretask coditios foud that the two did ot sigificatly differ (t < 1). PANAS-X. The PANAS-X (Watso & Clark, 1992), which followed the S or detal pai treatmet but preceded the creativity maipulatio, is a self-report adjective checklist that cotais 13 subscales for positive ad egative affect, guilt, fear, shyess, happiess, hostility, self-assurace, sadess, sereity, surprise, attetiveess, ad fatigue. Because the scales for positive ad egative affect cotai may of the items for the other subscales, separate oe-way (S vs. detal pai) ANOVAs were performed o positive ad egative affect, ad a multivariate aalysis of variace (ANOVA) was coducted o the remaiig 11 subscales. All aalyses revealed o sigificat effects (all Fs < 1). It is iterestig to ote specifically that the guilt subscale of the PANAS-X, composed of such items as "guilty" ad "dissatisfied with self," revealed o effects of S prior to the creativity treatmet (F < 1). Discussio The results of Study 1 supported the hypothesis that creative egagemet followig S ca lead to guilt. Whe participats reflected o their death ad were give a exercise ecouragig creative resposes, they reported more guilt tha did S participats who were ot ecouraged through the pretask exercise to be creative or creative- or ocreative-pretask detal pai participats. Although this patter coforms closely to predictios, there were some uexpected fidigs. The margially sigificat tred for S ocreative-pretask participats to show less guilt tha detal pai participats was ot aticipated. However, it is importat to ote that participats i the S creative-pretask coditio showed sigificatly higher guilt tha those i the detal pai coditios, ad thus the elevatio of guilt i that coditio was ot oly relative to the reduced guilt i the S ocreative-pretask coditio. Speculatig about this tred, however, we suggest that perhaps uder coditios where participats were remided of their mortality but ot ecouraged to be creative, they experieced low levels of guilt because they felt they did what they were told. Simply egagig i the pretask word-substitutio exercise ad writig a story without beig primed with a creative orietatio may have led S participats to feel secure i their social attachmets, which, i tur, would lead to decreased guilt. Because this effect was oly margially sigificat, before speculatig further we desiged a secod study i part to ascertai if it would replicate. We were also surprised that ulike Coti et al. (1995), we did ot fid that completig the creative pretask led participats to write stories that were more creative tha those of the participats who completed the ocreative pretask. Oe differece betwee our research ad that of Coti et al. is that i the latter, participats were ru through the experimet idividually, whereas i our study, participats were ru i small group sessios. Perhaps the istructios delivered by the experimeter ecouragig egagemet i the tasks had a greater impact o the participats whe there was oly oe perso i the experimetal sessio, which, i tur, may have boosted the participat's expressed creativity. Aother related possibility is that i the preset study, ot oly did we ru participats i small group sessios, but we also wet to great legths to assure participats of their aoymity. I cotrast, it is likely that participats i Coti et al. did ot feel as aoymous give that they were ru idividually. As a result, participats i the preset study may have egaged i social loafig (e.g., Karau & Williams, 1993) ad may ot have tried as hard to be creative. Therefore, oe issue is whether the guilt observed after S stems from participats' perceptios of creativity or the extet of their actual creative behavior. O the basis of the ideas ad fidigs of the preset research, we argue that perceptio of creativity is the key costruct. I this study, there was o effect of treatmet o participats' actual creativity (as rated by judges). 3 Because we used orthogoal cotrasts across all three studies, we did ot compare the S creative-task coditios to the o-s creative-task coditios. However, it may be worth otig that this compariso was sigificat i both Studies 1 ad 2 (ts > 2.15, ps <.05), ad it just missed covetioal sigificace i Study 3, t(92) = 1.91, p =.059.

6 24 ARNDT ET AL. oreover, our aalysis focuses o the psychology of the idividual ad how he or she reacts to perceived creative actio o his or her part, regardless of how creative the idividual actually was. As oted by oe of our earlier reviewers, there are, o doubt, may idividuals who facy themselves creative whe close ispectio of their product by a relevat expert or eve a ovice observer would idicate otherwise. The importat poit is that the idividual feels as if he or she was creative. To esure that our creativity maipulatio was havig this effect, i our secod study we assessed how creative participats thought they were. Study 2 Because the maipulatio of creative actio appeared to be weak i Study 1, we desiged a secod study to replicate these results but with a creativity maipulatio that more sharply distiguishes betwee the creative ad ocreative coditios. Although i Coti et al. (1995), the maipulatio from Study 1 icreased creativity, it is a rather complicated procedure that may ot be best suited for the preset questios. Ideed, a part of this procedure eve itroduces a possible cofoud to our iterpretatio. I additio to thikig of questios to promote a creative orietatio, participats i these coditios were asked to imagie that these questios would be directed to a "pael of experts." Havig participats thik of showig their questios to a pael of experts may have egedered evaluatio apprehesio that iteracted with S to create guilt. To try to reduce this demad, istead of ecouragig participats to be creative through a creative set iductio as we did i Study 1, i Study 2, after the S or cotrol treatmet, we asked participats either to write a creative story or to copy three paragraphs from the readig passage. Thus, i this study, o metio was made of ay evaluatio, let aloe oe by a pael of experts. We also icluded questios at the ed of the experimetal sessio to assess whether participats' perceptios of their creativity differed betwee the creative ad ocreative coditios. After completig the State Guilt scale from the Guilt Ivetory (Joes & Kugler, 1993; Kugler & Joes, 1992), participats aswered a questio askig them how creative they thought they were durig the writig exercise. From the preset perspective, the explaatio that perceived creative expressio followig S leads to guilt would be stregtheed were we to fid that the creativity maipulatio effectively led participats to perceive themselves as beig more creative. Two additioal questios were also icluded to address a differet accout of these fidigs. Oe alterative possibility is that after S, participats wated to be creative whe faced with that expectatio, ad it was their failure to achieve the level of creativity they desired that led to guilt. This explaatio would be cosistet with coceptualizatios of guilt that regard it as a private emotioal experiece resultig form the breach of persoal stadards (e.g., Ausubel, 1955). However, oe aspect of our methodology ca be used to argue agaist this possibility; amely, although it may be a implicit demad of the task, the experimeter ad the istructios ever explicitly asked participats to be creative i Study 1. Thus, it would have bee the participats themselves who made creativity a pertiet stadard of the task. Noetheless, this accout remais a possible explaatio for the observed patter of results o guilt. Therefore, i Study 2, after completig the State Guilt scale from the Guilt Ivetory (Joes & Kugler, 1993; Kugler & Joes, 1992), participats aswered ot oly the questio askig how creative they thought they were but also questios askig how creative they wated to be ad how much they thought about what other people would thik of what they were writig. If S creative-task participats experiece icreased guilt as a result of fallig short of a persoal stadard, the differeces may emerge o the questio askig if they were as creative as they wated to be. Similarly, if the icreased guilt occurs because participats are cocered with what others might thik of their stories, the S creative-task participats may report greater cocer tha their detal pai couterparts. However, if the effect o guilt arises because of the hypothesized cosequece of perceived creative expressio followig S, the oly a mai effect should emerge, with creative participats reportig higher self-ratigs o creativity tha ocreative participats. Participats ad Desig ethod Thirty male ad 55 female itroductory psychology studets at the Uiversity of Arizoa participated i the experimet i exchage for partial course credit. Participats were radomly assiged to coditios i a 2 (S vs. detal pai) X 2 (creative task vs. ocreative task) betwee-subjects desig. The depedet measure was agai participats' feeligs of guilt as measured by the State Guilt scale of the Guilt Ivetory (Joes & Kugler, 1993; Kugler & Joes, 1992). The data from 2 participats were discarded: 1 participat etered the laboratory durig the debriefig of the previous experimetal sessio ad 1 did ot follow istructios. Procedure The procedure for this study, with a few importat exceptios, was idetical with that of the first study. Rather tha iformig participats that they would write a story, the experimeter, who was blid to the coditios, explaied that they would complete a writig exercise after they read the passage. Participats the completed the packet of questioaires cotaiig either the S or the detal pai cotrol treatmet followed by the PANAS-X (Watso & Clark, 1992). I this study, however, participats did ot complete the pretask exercise; after completig the questioaires, they simply read the short passage o dreams. Thus, participats did ot read the dream excerpt or complete the pretask questio, ad o metio was made of a evaluatio of ay sort. We still had participats read the passage o dreamig to buttress our cover story ad to keep the situatio the same for all participats before admiisterig the creativity maipulatio. After readig the passage, participats were give a piece of paper i a blak evelope. For participats i the creative-task coditio, the istructios o the paper were the same as those used i Study 1 with the additio that participats were ecouraged to be as creative as they liked. Participats i the ocreative-task coditio were give writte istructios askig them to copy the first three paragraphs of the dream passage (a legth that was comparable with the legth of most of the stories geerated i Study 1). After the writig exercise, participats completed the State Guilt scale from the Guilt Ivetory (Joes & Kugler, 1993; Kugler & Joes, 1992). We also icluded a additioal set of five questios after the State Guilt scale that were adapted from Coti et al. (1995). Participats were asked to respod o 7-poit scales (1 = ot at all..., 1 = very...) to three questios assessig their perceptios of the writig task ad two questios assessig their perceptios of the readig passage. The first three questios asked participats to rate the extet to which durig the writig exercise they were as creative as they wated to be, they thought they were actually

7 DEATH, CREATIVITY, AND GUILT 25 creative, ad they thought about what other people would thik of what they were writig. The last two questios asked participats to rate the extet to which they foud the readig passage iterestig ad the extet to which they felt pressured while readig the passage. After completig all materials, participats were probed for suspicio, debriefed, thaked for their time, ad compesated with experimetal credits. Results Before assessig our primary hypothesis, we aalyzed the resposes to the five questios delivered at the coclusio of the study by meas of 2 (S vs. detal pai) X 2 (creative task vs. ocreative task) ANOVAs. Aalysis of the aswers to the questio askig "Durig the writig exercise, to what extet were you as creative as you wated to be?" revealed a mai effect for creative task coditio, F(l, 84) = 16.00, p <.001, with creativetask participats ( = 4.02) reportig more creativity tha ocreative-task participats ( = 2.52). A similar effect was foud i resposes to the questio askig "Durig the writig exercise, how creative do you thik you were?" F(l, 84) = 26.29, p <.001, with creative-task participats ( = 3.58) reportig more creativity tha ocreative-task participats ( = 1.93). Aalysis of the aswers to the questio askig "Durig the writig exercise, how much did you thik about what other people would thik of what you were writig?" also revealed a mai effect for creativity, F(l, 84) = 10.38, p <.01, with creative-task participats ( = 3.42) reportig greater cocer tha ocreative-task participats ( = 2.29). However, with this questio ad with the other questios metioed above, there were o mai or iteractive effects ivolvig S (all Fs < 1). There were also o sigificat effects o the remaiig two questios (all Fs < 1). Thus, it appears that our creativity treatmet effectively promoted perceived creativity relative to the ocreative treatmet. Guilt Ivetory To determie if we replicated the effect of S ad creativity o feeligs of guilt, we coducted a 2 (S vs. detal pai) X 2 (creative task vs. ocreative task) ANOVA o the Sate Guilt scale. Results of this aalysis revealed a sigificat effect for S, F(l, 84) = 6.22, p <.02, with S participats reportig more guilt ( = 27.4) tha detal pai participats ( = 23.7). This effect, however, was qualified by the predicted S X Creativity iteractio, F(l, 84) = 3.93, p =.05. Cell meas are preseted i Table 2 4 Table 2 Cell eas for the Two-Way Iteractio of ortality Saliece ad Creative Task o Guilt i Study 2 Task ortality saliet Detal pai To more specifically assess our predictios that oly S participats would show icreased guilt after egagig i a creative exercise, we agai coducted a series of plaed cotrasts. The first cotrast provided strog support for our hypothesis. The S creative-task coditio ( = 29.3) showed icreased guilt relative to the other three coditios (collapsed = 24.3), f(81) = 2.93, p <.01. I a secod cotrast we foud that the S ocreativetask coditio did ot differ from the detal pai coditios (/ < 1). Thus, ulike i Study 1, there was o idicatio that S ocreative-task participats showed less guilt. I a third cotrast we compared the detal pai coditios ad foud o differece (t < 1). These fidigs clearly replicated the predicted effects of S ad creativity o guilt foud i Study 1. Supplemetal Aalyses Creativity. Uder the same guidelies as i Study 1, two coders rated the creativity of the stories writte i the creative-task coditios. The correlatio betwee the two ratigs was acceptable, r(43) =.79, p <.001. To assess whether the S treatmet affected how creative participats were, we coducted a t test betwee the S ad detal pai creative-task coditios o a average of the two ratigs. This compariso revealed that after thikig about their mortality, participats were less creative tha they were after thikig about detal pai, /(42) = 3.06, p <.01 (s = 2.80 ad 3.57, respectively). Thus, whereas i Study 1 we failed to fid effects i this regard, the preset results idicate that whe preseted with the opportuity to write creatively followig S, participats were less creative tha they were after cotemplatig detal pai. PANAS-X. Oe-way (S vs. detal pai) ANOVAs were performed o positive ad egative affect, ad a ANOVA was coducted o the remaiig 11 subscales. All aalyses revealed o sigificat effects (all Fs < 1). It is agai iterestig to ote specifically that the guilt subscale of the PANAS-X revealed o effects of S prior to the creativity treatmet (F < 1). Discussio The preset fidigs provide a clear replicatio of the results from Study 1. Specifically, after S, participats who wrote creatively subsequetly expressed more guilt tha did participats i all other coditios. oreover, the assessmet of how creative participats thought they were provided a strog check o the effectiveess of our creativity maipulatio. As expected, participats who were asked to write a creative story thought they were more creative tha participats who were asked to simply copy paragraphs from the readig passage did. Iterestigly, although we foud that S creative-task participats were less creative tha their detal pai couterparts, this differece was ot paralleled with respect to the questio askig Creative Nocreative Iitial aalyses icluded sex, ad we foud a margially sigificat iteractio betwee sex ad creativity, F{\, 84) = 3.23, p =.08. Although the tred was such that me teded to show more guilt i the ocreative coditios whereas wome showed more guilt i the creative-task coditios, oe of the coditios differed from each other, all rs < Because this effect was weak ad did ot ivolve S, ad because sex effects were ot foud i Studies 1 or 3, it is ot discussed further.

8 26 ARNDT ET AL. participats how creative they thought they were. It is uclear why participats did ot report beig less creative whe cotet ratigs revealed this to be the case. Oe possibility for this discrepacy is that participats may ot have realized that they were ideed beig less creative. I additio, participats may have bee uwillig to report such a deficiecy for self-presetatioal reasos. The results of this study also suggest that it is ot because S participats perceived themselves as fallig short of a performace stadard that they exhibited icreased guilt. Specifically, oly a mai effect for creativity coditio was foud o the questio askig participats if they were as creative as they wated to be; o effects were foud ivolvig S. Thus, S creative participats did ot feel they were especially low i creativity or especially less creative tha they wated to be. This is cosistet with the view that the perceived act of creative expressio followig S produced the icreased guilt. However, it would still be helpful to brig data to bear o this questio more directly. To more cofidetly tease apart the plausibility of the explaatios based o participats thikig that they were creative or feelig that they were ot creative, we coducted a supplemetal two-coditio study. After S ad completio of the creativity exercise, participats were give feedback idicatig that their story was judged, usig a validated scorig method, to be either extremely creative or average i creativity. This feedback, however, did ot i ay way imply social approval or restored social coectio. Participats the completed the State Guilt scale (Joes & Kugler, 1993; Kugler & Joes, 1992). If it is the failure to be creative after S that leads to feeligs of guilt, the participats give the average creativity feedback should report more guilt tha participats give the extremely creative feedback. From this perspective, participats told that they were extremely creative would be reassured of beig creative ad would ot experiece the same amout of guilt as participats who were made to feel as if they did ot meet that stadard. Note also that the alterative evaluatio-apprehesio accout predicts the same effect. Presumably, receivig positive feedback would reduce apprehesio about beig evaluated, ad thus less guilt would be expected from these participats. If, o the other had, it is creative egagemet after S that leads to guilt, participats give feedback otig extreme creativity should report more guilt tha participats give feedback that their stories are of average creativity. Beig told that oe's story was oly average i this situatio would mea, from this perspective, that oe was ot stickig out too much, ad thus it would ot etail feeligs of guilt. A pairwise compariso betwee these two S coditios revealed that participats told their stories were extremely creative showed more guilt tha participats told their stories were of average creativity, t(2\) = 2.07, p =.05 ( = 29.6, = 6.19, ad = 24.1, = 6.61, respectively). This result is icosistet with explaatios based o the failure to meet stadards ad evaluatio apprehesio, istead suggestig that the perceptios of beig high i creativity led to icreased guilt after S. From a terror maagemet perspective, expressig oeself creatively after poderig the ievitability of oe's death leads to icreased self-reported guilt because such actios threate the security associated with seeig oeself as validated by others. Evidece supportig a terror maagemet role i such processes has previously bee show by Simo et al. (1997). I that study, participats cotemplated their mortality or takig a importat exam; were give false persoality feedback that described them either i eutral terms, as socially deviat, or as coformist; ad the estimated the degree of social cosesus for their attitudes (social projectio). Results idicated that participats who thought about their mortality ad received feedback describig them as socially deviat estimated a higher degree of social cosesus for their attitudes, whereas participats who thought about their mortality ad received feedback that they were coformist estimated decreased social cosesus, relative to both S-eutral feedback cotrols ad exam saliece couterparts. The explaatio for these effects was based o Becker's (1973) aalysis of what he referred to as the "twi otological motives" (p. 150) ad Brewer's (1993) optimal distictiveess theory. Both theories posit that people eed to maitai a optimal balace betwee idividuatio (beig uique) ad iclusio (beig similar). The two motives operate i a delicate balace such that too much fulfillmet of either motive disrupts a ecessary psychological equilibrium ad istigates icreased efforts to atted to the eglected motive ad restore equaimity. Supportig the otio that these dual motives serve a terror maagemet fuctio, attetio to the eglected motive was augmeted uder coditios of S. I the preset cotext, if beig creative after S also threates the optimal balace by accetuatig separatio from the collective, the S participats ecouraged to be creative should be motivated to icrease their sese of fittig i. The aalysis of guilt as a social pheomeo proposed by Rak (1932/1989) ad recetly supported i a review of the literature by Baumeister, Stillwell, ad Heatherto (1994; see also Tagey, 1995) also fits this reasoig. From this perspective, the emotio of guilt is a idicatio of social discoectio, ad it motivates social recociliatio. Whe oe faces the threat of social exclusio, guilt arises ad leads to relatioship-ehacig behavior. Cosistet with this aalysis are the may studies reviewed by Baumeister et al. (1994) showig that "guilty people affirm their social bods, pay icreased attetio to their parters, apologize ad make ameds for trasgressios, repair relatioship damage, ad chage their behavior to suit the parter" (p. 260). I cojuctio with the fidigs of Studies 1 ad 2, this perspective o guilt leads to a clear predictio regardig the effects of creativity ad S o perceptios of social coectio. I this case, because creative expressio followig S produces guilt, ad guilt is regarded as a idicator of threateed commual relatioships, after thikig about death ad beig creative, participats should be motivated to restore their perceptios of social coectedess. Study 3 To ivestigate the idea that creative actio after S would motivate participats to fit i with others, we used the same depedet measure applied by Simo et al. (1997), which was origially developed by Krueger ad Clemet (1994). This measure is based o previous research, i which researchers foud a idividual-level idex useful for assessig social projectio of attitudes (Dawes, 1990; Hoch, 1987; Krueger & Clemet, 1994; Krueger & Zeiger, 1993). The social projectio idex requires participats to idicate their persoal edorsemets of a variety of attitudial ad behavioral statemets ad to estimate the percetage of agreemet with these statemets by a particular group or populatio. A idex of projectio is formed by correlatig e-

9 DEATH, CREATIVITY, AND GUILT 27 dorsemets ad cosesus estimates for each participat. High projectio scores idicate a greater match betwee edorsemets ad estimates ad thus, i the preset cotext, idicate a greater strivig for idetificatio with the collective. The degree of social projectio may be moderated by the social desirability of agreemet with the items (e.g., Bramel, 1963; Suls, Wa, & Saders, 1988), because the extet of match betwee the self ad others may be iflated by the tedecy to ascribe socially desirable attributes to both the self ad others. I this measure this possibility is typically cotrolled for by icludig a item askig participats to also rate the social desirability of agreemet with each item. A social projectio idex is the formed usig the partial correlatios betwee edorsemets ad estimates, while cotrollig for social desirability ratigs (see Krueger & Clemet, 1994). Although i previous terror maagemet research experimeters have foud that S effects do ot occur i respose to a rage of aversive cotrol coditios, because both of our iitial studies used detal pai as a cotrol topic, we decided to cotrast the effects of S with a differet aversive topic that has yet to be used i terror maagemet research. Thus, half of the participats aswered two questios about their thoughts associated with beig paralyzed. If S participats feel guilty because of the threat to social affiliatio of creative actio, the S participats i the creative coditio should be motivated to bled ito the crowd ad therefore should exhibit a higher correlatio betwee their edorsemets ad cosesus estimates tha other participats should. Participats ad Desig ethod Forty-eight male ad 45 female itroductory psychology studets at the Uiversity of Arizoa participated i the experimet i exchage for partial course credit. Participats were radomly assiged to coditios i a 2 (S vs. paralysis saliece) X 2 (creative task vs. ocreative task) betweesubjects factorial desig. The depedet measure was level of social projectio. The data from 5 participats were ot icluded i the data aalysis: 1 participat reported suspicio durig debriefig, 1 was missig data o the projectio measure, ad 3 did ot follow istructios. Procedure The procedure for this study was idetical to that of Study 2 with three exceptios. First, we used the prospect of beig paralyzed as opposed to detal pai as a cotrol coditio. Secod, participats completed the social projectio measure istead of the Guilt Ivetory. Third, we added a additioal questio at the coclusio of the sessio that asked participats about the extet to which they were cocered with their level of creativity. After completig either the S or the paralysis maipulatio ad either the creative- or the ocreative-task maipulatio, participats were haded a blak evelope cotaiig the social projectio measure. These materials were the same as those used i Simo et al. (1997), which were adapted from Krueger ad Clemet (1994), ad cotaied selected items from the iesota ultiphasic Persoality Ivetory-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellege, & Kaemmer, 1989). The 16 items i the measure are eutral with respect to edorsemet leadig to self-esteem ehacemet or threat (e.g., "I like poetry," "I would like to be a siger," ad "I like collectig flowers or growig house plats"). Participats rated these items with respect to three dimesios. The first time the items were preseted participats reported their edorsemet of each item by usig a 9-poit scale (ragig from 1 = o agreemet with the statemet at all to 9 = total agreemet with the statemet). The items were the preseted agai, ad participats were asked to write dow the percetage of the populatio they thought agreed with each statemet, usig ay percetage from 0% (o oe i the geeral populatio agrees with the statemet) to 100% (everyoe i the geeral populatio agrees with the statemet). The last time participats saw the items, they were asked to write dow how socially desirable they thought it was to agree with each statemet usig a 9-poit scale (ragig from 1 = ot at all socially desirable to agree with the statemet to 9 = totally socially desirable to agree with the statemet). After completig these measures, participats completed the same questios as i Study 2, with the additioal questio of "Durig the writig task, to what extet were you cocered with your level of creativity?" Participats were the probed for suspicio, fully debriefed, ad thaked for their time. Results Before testig our primary hypotheses cocerig social projectio, we subjected the creativity perceptio questios to 2 (S vs. paralysis saliece) X 2 (creative vs. ocreative task) ANOVAs. These aalyses revealed mai effects for the creativity coditio o the questios askig "Durig the writig exercise, were you as creative as you wated to be?" (creative = 4.77, ad ocreative = 1.98), "Durig the writig exercise, how creative do you thik you were?" (creative = 4.19, ad ocreative = 1.58), ad "Durig the writig exercise, how cocered were you with your level of creativity?" (creative = 3.85, ad ocreative = 1.85; all Fs > 33, ps <.001). There were o other sigificat effects, icludig mai or iteractio effects, associated with S (all ps >.18), except for a iteractio o how creative the participats thought they were, which will be discussed later. These results idicate that our creativity maipulatio was agai effective at promotig differet levels of perceived creativity. Social Projectio To assess our primary predictios cocerig social projectio, we computed a social projectio idex for each participat by takig the partial correlatio betwee edorsemets ad cosesus estimates, while cotrollig for social desirability ratigs, o the attitude measures. This correlatio was the trasformed to Fisher z scores for aalyses (see Krueger & Clemet, 1994; cnemar, 1962). Higher scores reflect more social projectio. A 2 (S vs. paralysis saliece) X 2 (creative vs. ocreative task) ANOVA o these social projectio scores revealed the predicted iteractio, F(3, 92) = 3.71, p =.057. Cell meas are preseted i Table 3. There were o mai or iteractio effects ivolvig sex (all Fs < 1.3, ps >.27). As with the first two studies, we coducted plaed cotrast comparisos to assess the merits of our specific predictios. The first cotrast showed that S creative-task participats exhibited higher social projectio tha all other participats (s =.38 ad collapsed= -.12, respectively), r(92) = 2.14,/? <.05. The two remaiig cotrasts, oe betwee S ocreative-task participats ad the paralysis participats ad the other betwee the paralysis coditios, were ot sigificat (both ts < 1). Therefore, these results support the hypothesis that beig creative uder coditios

10 28 ARNDT ET AL. Table 3 Cell eas for the Two-Way Iteractio of ortality Saliece ad Creative Task o Social Projectio i Study 3 Task Creative Nocreative ortality saliet Paralys Note. Higher umbers reflect more social projectio. Stadardized scores are reported. of S motivates participats to stregthe their perceptios of social cosesus for their attitudes. Supplemetal Aalyses Creativity ratigs. Oce agai, uder the same guidelies as i the previous studies, coders rated the creativity of the stories participats wrote. The correlatio betwee raters was acceptable, r(46) =.78, p <.001. Ulike i Study 2, a oe-way (S vs. paralysis) compariso o the creativity of the stories did ot reveal a sigificat differece (F < 1). However, it is worth otig that the meas idicated that S participats' stories were rated as slightly less creative tha those of paralysis participats' (s = 2.96 ad 3.10, respectively). As oted above, there was a sigificat iteractio betwee S ad creativity coditio o the questio askig participats "Durig the writig exercise, how creative do you thik you were?", F(3, 92) = 5.21, p <.05. Cell meas are preseted i Table 4. S creative-task participats reported higher perceptios of creativity tha did participats i both ocreative coditios, but they reported less creativity tha paralysis saliece creative-task participats (all ps <.05). Iterestigly, although apparetly cosistet with the idea that S participats wated to stifle or dey their creativity, this effect appears to be more accurately iterpreted as higher perceptios of creativity after cotemplatig paralysis relative to other topics. A ispectio of the meas from Studies 2 ad 3 reveals that S participats are quite similar i their perceptios about their creativity across studies (i Study 2, = 3.52, ad i Study 3, = 3.61), whereas paralysis saliece participats were higher ( = 4.75) i their creativity ratigs tha were detal pai participats i Study 2 ( = 3.64). Perhaps the paralysis topic activated a eed for some kid of compesatory defese (cf. Baumeister & Joes, 1978; Greeberg & Pyszczyski, 1985). Although this is a potetially iterestig idea, because it is ot cetral to our primary cocers we will ot discuss it further. PANAS-X. A oe-way (S vs. paralysis saliece) ANOVA o the 11 subscales of the PANAS-X revealed o effect, ad oe-way ANOVAs o the positive ad egative mood subscales were also ot sigificat (all Fs < 1). Discussio The results of Study 3 supported the hypothesis that followig S, creative actio leads to a icrease i social projectio. After poderig their death ad writig a creative story, participats expressed high covergece betwee their attitudes ad those of others, whereas participats i all other coditios did ot. However, ulike i Study 2, i this study the stories writte were ot sigificatly less creative i the S coditio tha i the cotrol coditio. A ispectio of the meas across the two studies reveals that creativity i the cotrol coditio was lower i Study 3 tha i Study 2. Although at the time the participats wrote their stories the procedures were the same across studies, there were some oteworthy differeces. Oe differece was that the secod study was coducted early i the sprig semester, whereas the third study was coducted at the ed of the sprig semester; perhaps the mood or situatio of the ed-of-semester participats played some role i the diverget results. Specifically, these latter participats may have bee less likely to be creative i geeral because of either dispositioal differeces or the pressures of upcomig fials. Aother differece was the cotrol coditio; specifically, cotrol participats i Study 2 cotemplated detal pai, whereas those i Study 3 cotemplated paralysis. Perhaps the paralysis cotrol stifled creativity i some way. It is iterestig to ote, however, that whe the creativity ratigs of the stories for the two studies were combied ad subjected to a 2 (S vs. cotrol) X 2 (Study 2 vs. Study 3) ANOVA, there was ot a sigificat effect of study, but there was a mai effect of S, with S participats' stories exhibitig less creativity tha those of cotrols, F(3, 90) = 5.02, p <.03 (s = 2.88 ad 3.33, respectively). Geeral Discussio I studies 1 ad 2 we showed that S ad the perceptio of creative activity produced icreased guilt. This supports Rak's (1932/1989) view that the perceptio that oe has acted creatively poses a threat to the social coectios that protect us from our cocers about mortality. Although may theorists have proposed that creativity is of great value to the idividual, this threateig cosequece may help explai why, though so persuasively preached, creativity is so rarely practiced. As Rak argued so forcefully i Art ad Artist, true creativity requires courage to separate from the collective ad to bear the guilt, rejectio, ad sufferig that ofte accompaies it. To the extet that creative actio ca be see as threateig prevailig social orms, the fact that it egeders guilt followig Table 4 Cell eas for the Two-Way Iteractio of ortality Saliece ad Creative Task o the Questio "Durig the Writig Exercise, How Creative Do You Thik You Were?" i Study 3 Task ortality saliet Paralysis Creative Nocreative 3.61 a C b C Note. Cell meas that do ot share a commo subscript differ at p <.05.

11 DEATH, CREATIVITY, AND GUILT 29 S is cosistet with the body of evidece showig that S ecourages people to coform to such orms. Classic terror maagemet fidigs idicate that S icreases positive behaviors toward those who uphold social orms ad egative behaviors toward those who violate them (for a recet review, see Greeberg et al., 1997). I additio, Greeberg et al. (1992) foud that makig the value of tolerace saliet reduced the derogatio of a differet other followig S. Greeberg, Simo, Porteus, Pyszczyski, ad Solomo (1995) also foud that S led to slower performace ad more tesio whe participats eeded to use cultural icos i a iappropriate way to solve problems effectively. ost recetly, Schimel et al. (i press) have foud that S icreases stereotypical thikig about out-groups. The teor of all of these fidigs is that S icreases coformity to social orms. The preset Studies 1 ad 2 add to this work by showig that followig S, creativity, which may represet a departure from such orms, egeders guilt. I Study 3, we took the aalysis oe step further. If the cofluece of S ad creativity produces guilt because of the threat to social coectio, the it should also motivate actio to restore that coectio. The results of Study 3 supported this reasoig by showig that S ad creativity icreased social projectio. These fidigs also support the geeral otio that guilt is ot oly a respose to threat to social coectio but also a motivator of actio to restore social coectio (e.g., Baumeister et al., 1994; Rak, 1932/1989; Tagey, 1995). Ideed, Tagey (1995) distiguished betwee guilt ad shame by positig that they differ ot so much i the situatios or trasgressios that give rise to them but i their cosequeces ad the way they are experieced. Whereas shame leads to itetios to avoid iterpersoal cotact ad escape resposes, guilt motivates actio desiged to amed trasgressios ad restore social relatioships. Research has supported this hypothesis. For example, shame proeess is associated with maladaptive resposes to ager, ad guilt proeess is related to costructive resposes that have potetially positive iterpersoal cosequeces (Tagey, Wager, Hill-Barlow, arschall, & Gramzow, 1996). Although previous research attestig to the iterpersoal ature of guilt is cosistet with our explaatio that guilt led to the icreased social projectio amog S creative-task participats i Study 3, we do ot have direct evidece of mediatio, ad thus we caot be certai that guilt caused the icreased social projectio amog these participats. It may have bee possible to obtai such evidece by icludig the State Guilt scale of the Guilt Ivetory (Joes & Kugler, 1993; Kugler & Joes, 1992) either before or after the projectio measure; however, we chose ot to do so for two reasos. First, if we icluded the State Guilt scale after participats completed the projectio measure, it is possible that guilt would have bee reduced by social projectio, ad thus we would be tryig to iterpret a ull effect. Similarly, if we icluded the State Guilt scale before the projectio measure, the act of expressig guilt by respodig to the questioaire may have reduced the extet to which participats experiecig high guilt socially projected. Cosistet with this possibility is the work of Pyszczyski, Greeberg, Solomo, ad Sideris (1993; Schimel, Pyszczyski, Greeberg, O'ahe, & Ardt, 1999, Studies 3 & 4) showig that emotioal expressio reduces defesive resposes. However, we feel that the explaatio of high social projectio based o guilt is compellig because the same procedures that led to icreased guilt led to icreased social projectio, ad because the relatioship betwee these costructs is grouded i previous theory ad research. It will be desirable i future research to examie these effects with additioal maipulatios of creativity ad also to examie the iteractive effects of such maipulatios with S treatmets o other forms of egative affect. To the extet that guilt ad axiety are correlated, there may be some effects of the combiatio of these maipulatios o more geeralized forms of egative affect. However, the fact that these theoretically predicted effects occurred suggests that guilt may be a importat cosequece of creative behavior whe death cocers are accessible. oreover, we thik the predomiat emotioal respose is guilt because of the prior theory pertaiig to this emotio. Specifically, o the basis of Rak's writig ad the cotemporary coceptualizatios of guilt as a emotio sesitive to social discoectio (e.g., Baumeister et al., 1994; Tagey, 1995), we suggest that if creativity threates social coectio ad people are i particular eed of that social coectio followig S, the guilt would be the most adaptive emotio i terms of facilitatig efforts to reestablish that coectio. I additio, the Kugler ad Joes (1992) State Guilt scale of the Guilt Ivetory has, i previous research, demostrated high discrimiat validity with respect to other emotios (Joes & Kugler, 1993; Kugler & Joes, 1992). Creativity ad Cultural Norms A iterestig historical example that seems to fit these fidigs is that of the great Italia Reaissace paiter, Botticelli. I the midst of-- a heavily Christia culture, Botticelli created paitigs ispired by mythology, ad he was treated harshly because of it. Evetually, he seemed to give ito the criticism, ad he spet the rest of his life devoted to highly religious paitigs. Thus, after a period of astoishig creativity give his time ad place, Botticelli brought his attitudes ad his work back i lie with the prevailig cultural worldview, much as, although far less dramatically, our Study 3 participats icreased their perceptio of social cosesus followig S ad a creative activity. However, i our research, we caot be certai that the participats brought their attitudes more i lie with the group. They may also have simply altered their perceptios of how well group attitudes fit their ow. Both strategies could be used to restore a sese of social coectio, but the social projectio measure does ot allow us to determie which occurred or whether both strategies were used. Coceptually, it is usually easier to shift oe's perceptios of others' views tha to chage oe's ow attitudes for two reasos. First, people probably geerally have more iformatio about their ow attitudes; secod, chagig oe's ow attitudes may be likely to egeder dissoace by alterig the relatioship betwee other attitudes ad oes that have bee chaged (Festiger, 1957). However, there ca certaily be circumstaces, as i historical cases like Botticelli's, i which the domiat view is made crystal clear, ad chage i oe's ow attitudes may be the oly recourse to reestablishig social coectios. Of course, research is eeded to assess the coditios fosterig the use of oe or several of these strategies to restore social ties. Aother issue requirig further research is the specific role of prevailig social orms. Creativity by defiitio ivolves doig somethig other tha what is prescribed by prevailig orms.

12 30 ARNDT ET AL. Thus, threat to oe's social stadig is a commo result. However, will violatig social orms always geerate guilt? To the extet that guilt is viewed as a purely social pheomeo, it should arise wheever social orms are violated (e.g., Baumeister et al., 1994). However, it seems likely that two factors withi the psychology of the idividual his or her iteralized worldview i terror maagemet terms would affect the level of guilt aroused. The first is the extet to which the idividual idetifies with or derives his or her worldview ad self-esteem from the social group that advocates the prevailig social orms. Thus, members of subcultures i which the domiat culture is rejected may have little cocer with social ties to the prevailig group. Therefore, they would experiece o guilt whe actig outside the bouds of the domiat group's social orms, especially if their actios are socially validated by their subcultural group. For example, adolescets who express themselves by dyeig their hair blue, tattooig ad piercig various body parts, ad ridig skateboards may act outside of covetioal orms, but they do so withi a subculture that admires ad values such expressio. The secod factor is the extet to which the relevat social orms are actually accepted or iteralized by the idividual. A perso may be heavily idetified i geeral with a certai group, ad yet because of values iteralized durig childhood, the perso may completely reject some specific social orms of the group. A iterestig questio for future research would the be how much guilt does a perso feel whe egagig i actio cotrary to a i-group orm that the idividual explicitly rejects'? Research is also eeded to examie differet types of creativity. Certaily all forms of creativity are ot equally discrepat from the orm ad do ot always imply alieatio from the group. I fact, i may cotexts, creativity of a certai kid but typically ot too much creativity is explicitly advocated i the prevailig worldview. O a similar ote, i some cotexts, beig creative may be a essetial stadard by which oe may be socially accepted or rejected. A idividual who lives ad works i a artist's coloy, for example, may react quite differetly tha did the participats i our experimets. oreover, as much as the lives of people Like Botticelli ad Va Gogh may reflect the dyamics of creative actio that we have bee researchig, there are o doubt may examples of idividuals who have bee embraced for their creativity i their lifetime (e.g., Be Frakli, Thomas Ediso, Bill Gates, Pablo Picasso). A iterestig directio of future research would be to explore how ad why forms of creativity may differ i their implicatios for guilt ad social discoectio. Oe importat factor may be the extet to which the creative behavior ca be justified as for the social good. Ideed, Lifto (1983) has argued that creativity is oe mode of symbolic strivig for immortality, of cotributig somethig lastig to the culture. As Rak (1932/1989) observed, creative expressio before the 19th cetury was ofte i the cotext of religious ideology, ad this socially sactioed framework may have provided a aveue toward social coectio that atteuated guilt from idividuatio. I the 20th cetury, creative actio for the purpose of advacig techology (e.g., the work of Bill Gates) may fuctio similarly. I the preset studies, the creative acts of participats may have egedered guilt precisely because they were ot orieted toward ay broad social good or acclaim. Thus, work is eeded o differet dimesios ad aspects of creativity ad social coceptios ad judgmets of creativity (see, e.g., Kasof, 1995), particularly as they affect the kids of emotios ad actios that creativity egeders i the idividual. Coclusio The preset studies show that followig S, whe the eed for social validatio is particularly great, creative actio stimulates both guilt ad a effort to reestablish oe's social coectio. This suggests that creativity stimulates some very potet psychological cocers. Of course, these studies are oly a first step i lookig at this darker side of creativity; a great may questios regardig the social ad emotioal ramificatios of creative actio remai. However, we are hopeful that this work provides some impetus toward further progress i this domai, particularly give the potetial value of creativity ot oly i our idividual lives but i our progress as a species as well. eaker (1982) agai summarizes the thoughts of Rak: The idividual artist is bor ito a specific culture withi a give epoch. 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