Intelligence and Positive Health: A Critical Review

Transcription

1 Biopsychosocial Issues in Positive Halth Published by: Global Vision Publishing House Editors Amrita Yadava, Deepti Hooda and NovRattan Sharma Intelligence and Positive Health: A Critical Review Deepti Hooda*, NovRattan Sharma** and Amrita Yadava*** In recent time s health has secured a more positive definition involving much more than simply absence of disease. It is quite possible for a person to be free of disease but still not enjoy a vigorous satisfying life. Researches have shown that clinical psychology for years have focused primarily on the diagnosis and treatment of psychopathology, but eliminating excess negatives does not produce happiness, it produces emptiness (Lewis, 2006). Even the great historian of medicine, Sigerist (1941) defined health in positive terms, Health is not simply the absence of disease: it is something positive, a joyful attitude toward life, and a cheerful acceptance of responsibilities that life put upon the individual. This statement tries to establish health as a state that can be described conceptually at least, in positive terms, not merely as absence of negative elements. POSITIVE HEALTH In this new millennium, Positive Psychology christened by Seligman (1998) emerged as a challenge against the disease model of psychology. Earlier focus of psychology has been on understanding and remedy of human problems, leading to neglect of what made human life productive, enjoyable, fulfilling and worth living. The new century challenges psychology to shift more of its intellectual energy to the study of the positive aspects of human experience. Thus, Positive Psychology is a science of positive subjective experience, of positive individual traits, and of positive institutions that promises to improve the quality of life and also to prevent the various pathologies that arise when life is barren and meaningless. However, positive psychology is not a new field. During the times of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, philosophical and religious inquiry focused on God Life. The humanistic psychologists in 1960 s and 1970 s focused on the goals for which people strive, their awareness of their striving and the importance of rational choice in this process. The researches in 1980 s and 1990 s addressed concepts such as values, well being, self efficacy, resilience, coping strength, hardiness etc. Thus, the concepts being expounded and researched in positive psychology existed earlier also and the same have not been invented by positive psychologists. * Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, M.D.University Rohtak. ** Professor, Department of Psychology, M.D. University, Rohtak. *** Professor, Department of Psychology, M.D. University, Rohtak.

2 160 Biopsychosocial Issues in Positive Health Seligman in 2008 proposed a field, Positive Health as a combination of excellent status on biological, subjective and functional measures. The biological measures/ variables relevant to health include body mass index, blood pressure, temperature, pulse rate, lipid/ cholesterol, urine analysis, liver function etc. the subjective measures takes into account the positive ends of several psychological states like welling, life satisfaction, optimism, internal health-related locus of control, positive emotions. The category of functional measures of positive health includes two classes of measures, firstly laboratory test such as speed of gait, reaction time, grip strength test and secondly the individual s personal ecology i.e. person-environment fit, which means optimal state of adaptation between one s bodily function and the positive physical requirements and demands of one s life. Present review focuses on health from positive subjective perspective which views it as a state where a reserve of positive emotions, strengths and experiences are build up in order to enable the individual to deal with adverse situations, sufferings and illness. Positive health can be embodified as building up of positive behaviour / experiences which provide a buffer against/or prevents illness and help the individual not only to endure and survive, but flourish. According to Carr (2004), the positive, subjective experiences are associated with past (well-being, contentment and satisfaction), present (happiness and flow), and future (optimism and hope). Thus, some of the major subjective components of Positive health may include well-being, contentment and satisfaction, happiness, flow, optimism, hope etc. Well-being, Contentment and Satisfaction Satisfaction, contentment, fulfillment, pride and serenity are the main positive emotions associated with the past (Seligman, 2002). Subjective well-being refers to how people evaluate their lives, and includes variables such as life satisfaction and marital satisfaction, and a relative absence of unpleasant moods and emotions. A person s evaluation of his or her life may be in the form of cognitions e.g., when a person gives conscious evaluative judgments about his or her satisfaction with life as a whole or evaluative judgments about specific aspect of his or her life such as recreation. However, an evaluation of one s life may also be in the form of affect (people experiencing unpleasant or pleasant moods and emotions in reaction to their lives). The cognitive and affective components of subjective well being are highly interrelated. Subjective well-being (SWB) covers entire range of well being from agony to ecstasy. SWB focuses on internal experience of the respondent and is concerned with long term states, not just the momentary moods. Happiness and Flow Happiness is a positive state of mind. Although, the dictionary definition is feeling of joy and pleasure mingled together, happiness is the overall appreciation of one s life as a whole. Positive emotions lead to an increase in tolerance for pain (Weisnberg, Raz and Hener, 1998). With the exception of severely disabled, most people adapt to their health problems relatively quickly and develop self-perceptions of their health which are consistent with their level of happiness. However, there is a growing body of evidence which shows that happiness may influence health via its effect on immune system. The immune systems of happy people work more effectively than those of unhappy people (Kamen-Siegel Rodin, Seligmand and Dwyer 1991; Segerstrom Taylor, Kemeny and

3 Intelligence and Positive Health: A Critical Review 161 Fahey, 1998; Stone, Cox, Napoli, Valdimarsdottir and Kennedy-Moore 1994). Evidences from longitudinal studies also show that happiness has important effects on longevity (Danner, Snowdon and Friesen, 2001; Maruuta Colligan, Malinchoc and Offord, 2000; Ostir Markides, Black and Goodwin 2000). Another important concept is flow, a term coined by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi as a result of studies he undertook on what gives people enjoyment. Flow experiences occur when one become engaged in controllable but challenging tasks (which are intrinsically motivated) and there must be a good chance of completing the tasks. According to Csíkszentmihályi (1997), what you are experiencing in that moment is known as flow, a state of complete immersion in an activity. He describes the mental state of flow as being completely involved in an activity for its own sake. The ego falls away. Time flies. Every action, movement, and thought follows inevitably from the previous one, like playing jazz. Your whole being is involved, and you re using your skills to the utmost. These tasks require total concentration so one becomes deeply and effortlessly involved in them, so much so that the individual no longer thinks of worries and frustrations of everyday life. At the same time flow experience leads to enhanced performance, creativity and higher self-esteem, subjective well-being and health. Optimism and Hope Optimism is expectation of good things and explaining things positively. The two main approaches to optimism are based on distinct conceptualization of optimism. At one extreme, optimism has been conceptualized as a broad personality trait characterized by general optimistic expectations (Scheier and Carver, 1985) while at the other hand it has been constructed as an explanatory style (Seligman, 1998). Thus, dispositional optimism is individual s stable generalized expectation that they will experience good things in life. With regard to optimism s role in influencing health, it has been hypothesized that optimism leads to more adaptive coping with stress. Optimism has also been found to influence health through it s relation with health habits (Peterson, 2000; Snyder, 2000). Explanatory style describes the causal attributions that individuals habitually make for the positive and negative events that happen in their life. Research on explanatory style has mainly examined direct relations with physical and psychological health outcomes (Peterson, Seligman & Valliant, 1988; Kamen- Siegel Rodin, Seligman & Dwyer, 1991). More so explanatory style is related to health through coping (Peterson & Seligman, 1987) and perception of health problems (Peterson & De Avila, 1995). Hope, a construct closely related to optimism, has been conceptualized by Snyder (2000) as involving two main components: the ability to plan pathways to desired goals despite obstacles, and agency or motivation to use these pathways. Hope is the sum of these two components. According to Snyder (2000), hope has three necessary ingredients: (1) Goal-oriented thoughts - Thoughts directed by some short-term or long-term goals that should be attainable yet challenging in nature. (2) Pathways to achievement - In order to achieve goals, singular or multiple pathways should be generated. People with the high levels of hope tend to generate multiple pathways to goal achievement, so that alternative pathways can be used when obstacles are faced. (3) Agency thoughts It s a motivational component of hope, where people believe that they can initiate and sustain the pathways to goal achievement. This type of thought begins after 1 year of age when children realize they are actors who can influence their environment and initiate cause-and-effect relationships. The emphasis

4 here is on thinking and not emotions, which are by-products of hope. In various researches, Optimism and hope has been linked to higher academic and athletic performance, better adjustment, physical and mental health and better coping with health issues. INTELLIGENCE AND POSITIVE HEALTH One of the most fundamental problems in research on Positive health is uncertainty about which variables are the causes and which are the consequences. Identifying factors that contribute to happiness is not a simple matter (Diener & Lucas, 1999). However, most of the variables described as causes have only been shown to be Correlates of Positive Health and might conceivable be consequences, or perhaps both causes and consequences. In 1967, Wilson reviewed the limited empirical evidence regarding the Correlates of avowed happiness. He concluded that the happy person is a young, healthy, well educated, well-paid, extroverted, optimistic, worry-free, job morale, modest aspirations, of either sex, and of a wide range of intelligence. Since, Wilson s review thousands of studies have been conducted which have pointed out number of variables that may associate with an individual s Health. There are various factors like age, gender, income, culture, relationship, life events, personality, intelligence which may determine and influence health and one such group of factors that significantly affect Positive Health is of the individual differences. Individuals differ not only in their physical characteristics but also in their psychological makeup such as personality, memory, intelligence. Among these factors intelligence may be associated with Positive Health and other health related behaviours. Intelligence influences an individual s overall behaviour pattern-ability to reason, ability to engage in social interactions and relationships, ability to perceive, understand and manage emotions. Intelligence level of a person influences almost each and every small or big act; therefore health status of an individual is also bound to be affected by it. Thus, in considering positive health one must take into account the role of the relatively enduring characteristics i.e. intelligence of individuals, that remains largely unaffected by momentary changes in their environmental situation. Here, focus of the present article is on intelligence as a correlate of positive health. General Intelligence and Positive Health To this day, how exactly to define intelligence is still debated. However, there are two major think tanks on the nature of intelligence. The first, supported by those who believe that all intelligence comes from one general factor. The other school thinks that there is more than one general type of intelligence or in other words, there are different types of intelligences. Some theories of intelligence extend this definition by suggesting that there is a general factor of intelligence, often labeled G, which underlines all adaptive behaviour (Brand 1996; Jensen 1998). Spearman s name is almost synonym with the term general intelligence. He believed it to correspond to a fixed amount of mental energy, that an individual can assign to different tasks at different times. Spearman (1927) also found what he considered to be less important set of specific factors, each of which was related to performance on a single type of mental ability test. In many widely accepted theories of today (e.g. Carroll, 1993; Horn, 1994), other mental abilities are hierarchically nested under the general factor at successively greater levels of specificity. According to Carroll there

5 are three levels which capture the hierarchy of abilities, whereas Cattell (1971) and Vernon (1971) suggested two levels. Two levels which Cattell has nested under general ability are (i) fluid abilities - needed to solve abstract reasoning problems such as figured matrices or series completions and (ii) crystallized abilities - needed to solve problems of vocabulary and general information. In the case of Vernon, the two levels correspond to verbal and educational abilities and spatial, practical and mechanical abilities. General intelligence, that underlies all tasks may also influence ones health status especially subjective Positive Health measures. Hooda (2007) found General intelligence to be significantly and positively correlated with Optimism and negatively correlated with General Health and Body Mass Index. People with high level of intelligence are more optimistic about future and they expect more good things to happen in future than those with poor score on intelligence test. Regarding the relation between General intelligence and biological measures of Positive health i.e, BMI, it was observed that individuals scoring high on General intelligence test have lower body mass index than individual scoring low on intelligence test. The minimum body mass index computed for the present data is Kg/m 2, which falls in the optimal weight category (18.5 to 24.9 Kg/m 2 ) according to the index of World Health Organization. Thus, individuals high on general intelligence possess optimal body mass index or ideal weight. Halkjaer, Holst and Sorensens (2003) also reported similar findings that intelligence test score is inversely related to risk of development of obesity. At times individuals with high level of intelligence over analyse things and become tensed and anxious leading to poor mental and physical health. General intelligence has a non significant association withspiritual health, Happiness and Satisfaction with life (Hooda, 2007). Similar results were reported by Quinn and Duckworth (2007) that subjective well being, measured by Students Life Satisfaction scale, do not significantly correlate with intelligence measured by Otis-Lennon School Ability test in students. Emotional Intelligence and Positive Health The explosion of interest in the construct, emotional intelligence, arose from Daniel Goleman s (1995) best seller Emotional Intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. Whereas, the first use of the term Emotional Intelligence is usually attributed to Wayner Payne s (1985) doctoral thesis, A study of emotion: Developing Emotional Intelligence. In 1983, Gardner proposed Interpersonal relationships (capacity to understand and regulate one s emotions). The first published attempt toward a definition was made by Salovey in Emotional intelligence can be defined as the ability to perceive emotion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotion and to regulate emotions to promote personal growth. In recent research emotional intelligence has been conceptualized in two distinct ways or models as ability model, which describes emotional intelligence as a set of abilities (Mayer and Salovey, 1997) and other as mixed models which describe emotional intelligence as a set of abilities and personality traits (Bar-on, 1997; Goleman, 1995, 1998). Emotional intelligence, which refers to the abilities used to process information, about one s own emotions and the emotions of others, is considered essential for one s physical and psychological adaptation (Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey& Palfai, 1995). Holahan, Moos and Schaefer (1996) reported that ability to use problem solving approaches to cope with relatively controllable challenges and stresses have been found to improve physical as well as mental health and increase personal well being.

6 164 Biopsychosocial Issues in Positive Health Extremera and Fernandez-Berrocal (2006) examined relation between emotional intelligence factors and general health. They used Trait Meta-Mood Scale - TMMS (Salovey Mayer, Goldman, Turvey and Palfai, 1995) to assess emotional intelligence, SF-12 (Ware, Kosinski and Keller, 1996) for general health in university students and found that levels of mood repair (people s belief in their capacity to interrupt negative moods and prolong positive ones) positively predicted general health, accounting for 4% of variance. Fernandez-Berrocal, Salovey, Vera, Extremera, and Ramos (2005), also observed that high score in the mood repair, was associated with better general results in life. Goldman, Kraemer and Salovey (1996), their findings also point to the similar relationship between mood repair and health and illness. The role of emotional intelligence factors in predicting happiness is supported by the finding of Extremera and Fernandez-Berrocal (2006) where all the EI components (Attention, Clarity and Repair) significantly predict 20% of individual s mental health (happiness, anxiety and depression). Repair (extent to which people attend to the value their feeling) and clarity (feel clear rather confused about feelings) positively, and repair (use positive thinking to repair moods) negatively predict happiness. Similarly, Furuhan and Petrides (2003) reported that trait emotional intelligence accounted for over 50% of total variance in happiness using hierarchical regression analysis. In a recent study, Extremera, Duran and Rey (2007), suggested that adolescence with high perception of emotional abilities i.e. high clarity and capacity to interrupt negative moods and enhance positive ones i.e. mood repair generally show higher life satisfaction. Clarity and mood repair are the components of emotional intelligence as measured by TMMS (Trait-Meta Mood Scale). Similar results are observed by Extremera and Fernandez-Berrocal (2005), who reported that clarity (an emotional intelligence component as measured by TMMS) significantly accounted for 6% of variance in life satisfaction. In an earlier Palmer, Donaldson and Stough (2002) also found that high emotional clarity is linked to higher satisfaction with life. Petrides, Pita and Kokkinaki (2007) further extended support to the findings, by pointing that trait emotional intelligence (measured by TEI Que, Petrides, 2001) is a significant positive predictor of life satisfaction. Hooda, Sharma and Yadava (2008) reported that Satisfaction with life is significantly and positively correlated with Appraisal of negative emotions (EI) and Appraisal of positive emotions (EI). Happiness was found to be positively correlated with all the EI factors i.e. Appraisal of positive emotions, Interpersonal conflicts and difficulties, Interpersonal skills and flexibility and, emotional facilitation and goal orientedness. Optimism was significantly and positively correlated with all the EI factors except Inter personal conflicts and difficulties. This implies that people who do not get unnecessarily tensed in work situation, stressed in day to day affairs are more satisfied with life and more optimistic about positive outcomes in future. Individuals high on Appraisal of positive emotions (EI) factor are able to sense the feelings of others, enjoys the work and the challenges of life and such people are happier in their present life, more satisfied with life and more optimistic about their future. Individuals who are able to handle re-organizations and extremely changing situation successfully and also maintain balance between work and family affairs tend to be happier. Another factor of EI, interpersonal skills and flexibility, that takes into account individuals ability to maintain close supportive relationships, friendships and acquaintance, ability to accept criticism and mend themselves. Such people are happier with the present life and more optimistic about future as well. Argyle (2001) reported that close supportive relationships and Kinship network enhance social support which in turn increases

7 Intelligence and Positive Health: A Critical Review 165 subjective well being and happiness. Buss (2000) supported these obtained findings. Diener and Seligman (2002) in a study of the happiest 10 percent of a group of 222 college students observed that their most distinctive attribute was their rich and fulfilling social life. So, people with good supportive and healthy relationships are happy. These findings are also seen in line with the results of Hooda et al (2008). People, who score high on the Emotional facilitation and goal orientedness, another factor of EI, are happier, love life, are mentally alert and have fun. They also tend to be more optimistic about favorable future outcomes. In regard to other biological and functional measures of Positive Health like BMI and General health, it was observed that Appraisal of negative emotions (EI) and Appraisal of positive emotions (EI) is significantly and positively related to General health (Hooda, 2007). However, Appraisal of negative emotions (EI) is negatively and significantly correlated with Body Mass Index (optimal weight). Thus, people who appraise their life situations in negative terms have high body mass index. Individuals who get easily stressed and tensed, and feel helpless in controlling the situation and their bad moods have higher body mass index that individuals who are able to handle stressful situations, conflicts and emotional problems. Lower and higher BMI cut off are associated with different health problems such as hypertension (Tesfaye, Nour, Minh, Byass, Berlove, Bonita and Wall, 2007) and poor mental health (Brown, Dobson and Mishra, 1998). Thus, people who are stressed, worried, anxious, helpless and unable to handle conflicts and emotional problems have high BMI which may inturn make them prone to different health problems, poor general health, less satisfied with life and less optimistic. Hooda, Sharma and Yadava (2011) in another study found significant positive association between Spiritual health and the two components of Emotional intelligence (appraisal of positive emotions and emotional facilitation and goal orientedness) while a negative correlation was observed with one Emotional intelligence factor i.e. Interpersonal conflict and difficulties. Thus, ability to sense the feelings of others, pay complements to deserving people, enjoy their work and the challenges of life, take decisions and carry innovative ideas, and is sensitive to relationships i.e. individuals high on Appraisal of positive emotions (EI) are spiritually healthy. Moreover people who are confident, have ability to differentiate and compare feelings, involve in healthy criticism directed towards behavior and not towards an individual and have ability to make positive emotion last longer poses good spiritual health. Social Intelligence and Positive Health Social intelligence, as originally coined by Thorndike (1920), is the ability to understand and manage people to act wisely in human relations. It is equivalent to Gardner s (1983) interpersonal intelligence which is explicitly social in nature. Social intelligence is also explicitly represented in Sternberg s triarchic view of intelligence. According to the triarchic theory, intelligence is composed of analytical, creative and practical abilities. Practical intelligence is defined in terms of problem solving in everyday contexts and explicitly includes social intelligence (Sternberg and Wagner, 1986). Researchers have shown that Social intelligence, the ability of intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies, and skills, influences one s performance, physical health, psychological health, selfactualization and subjective well-being (Bar-On, 2005, 2004, 2003, 2001, 1997; Bar-On, Handley & Fund, 2005; Krivoy, Weyl Ben-Arush, Bar-On, 2000). Similar findings were reported by Axelrod (1984) who observered that co-operation with acquaintances is a potential source of happiness. Buss

8 166 Biopsychosocial Issues in Positive Health (2000) also reported that co-operation is not only a way to increase happiness but also a way to avoid unhappiness due to regular involvement in competition. In an extensive series of studies, humor is found to be a effective coping strategy (LefCourt, 2001, 2002). People who score high on humor showed less stress related symptomatology such as depression in response to stressful life events. Humor has been found to / aid recovery from illness and surgery. Immune system functioning has also been found to be improved when humor is used to cope with stressful situations. Humor may help to cope by lifting the sense of well being through laughter, by increasing social support. Hooda, Sharma and Yadava (2009) found significant positive association between the two subjective components of Positive Health i.e. Satisfaction with life and Happiness, and factors of Social intelligence i.e. Coperativeness, Confidence, Sensitivity, tactfulness Sense of humor, and Memory. Optimism was found to be significantly and positively correlated with Patience, Cooperativeness, Confidence and Tactfulness and negatively correlated with memory. Further Step-wise regression analysis revealed that out of eight, seven factors of Social intelligence significantly predict one or the other Positive Health dimensions. Hooda (2007) also reported that Social intelligence factors i.e. Cooperation, Confidence, Tactfulness and Sense of Humor significantly and positively associate with General Health. Tactfulness and Sense of Humor also significantly and positively associate with BMI but memory for social events, name of people you know negatively correlate with BMI. People who are calm under stressful situations tend to be optimistic about future. Individuals high on cooperativeness, ability to interact with others in a pleasant way and to be able to view matters from all angles experience greater happiness, are more satisfied with lie and optimistic and more over posses better general health. Confidence, deals with the ability to develop firm trust in oneself and ones chances. Ability to be aware of and responsive to human behavior i.e. Sensitivity, is associated with happiness in present and greater satisfaction with life. People who are Tactful, another factor of social intelligence which means the delicate perception of the right things to say or do are happier; more satisfied with life, optimistic and poses better general health. Individuals with Sense of humor, capacity to feel and cause amusement and to be able to see the lighter side of life, are happy, satisfied with life and good general health but tend have higher BMI. Memory associated with Social intelligence deals with ability to remember all relevant issues, names and faces of people. Individuals with good memory for all relevant issues, names and faces of people report to be happier, more satisfied with life and have optimal BMI. CONCLUSIONS From the above review, it can be concluded that various factors of Intelligence significantly predict different components of Positive Health (Happiness, Satisfaction with life, Optimism, BMI and General health). Review also highlights the importance of general intelligence, emotional intelligence and social intelligence in the area of health psychology. It strongly demonstrate that level of intelligence is directly and positively associated with positive health parameters. Hence, individuals with high level of various types of intelligence posses better positive health. So, one can enhance one s positive health by improving his/her forms of social, emotional, general intelligence. Therefore, further researches may be undertaken for designing possible intervention to enhance various intelligences and in turn improve Positive Health.

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