creative What Makes a CASE STUDY 246 CHAPTER 9

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1 CASE STUDY What Makes a GENIUS? creative GENIUS Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner believes that there are several kinds of intelligence. Above and beyond the sorts of intelligence useful in school, Gardner suggests that other kinds of intelligence are necessary for success in other areas. Gardner s perspective on intelligence stems in part from his life-long love of the arts. As a student of psychology, Gardner noticed that the arts and creativity generally Martha Graham s bodilykinesthetic intelligence He decided to investigate their received little attention. helped her to explore new relationship to intelligence by pathways in modern dance. studying some of the most creative people of the 1900s. In 1993 Gardner published his findings in a book titled Creating Minds. In it, Gardner describes the characteristics and circumstances that shaped the lives and work of seven major figures: Sigmund Freud, Albert Einstein, Pablo Picasso, Igor Stravinsky, T. S. Eliot, Martha Graham, and Mohandas Gandhi. Each of these people was outstanding in his or her field, and each one also happens to represent one of the intelligences in Gardner s theory. Sigmund Freud, as you know, was a famous psychologist whose intelligence provided insight into his own deepest feelings. Albert Einstein, the physicist who established the theory of relativity, had a special ability in math. Pablo Picasso a painter, sculptor, and potter had outstanding spatial-relations intelligence. Igor Stravinsky, a composer, had extraordinary musical ability. T. S. Eliot, a poet, had linguistic intelligence. Martha Graham, a dancer, had special body-kinesthetic intelligence. Mohandas Gandhi possessed exceptional sensitivity to the feelings and needs of others, which helped him to become an influential leader in India. Using the information he learned about these creative people, Gardner developed EC. EC stands for Exceptional Creator, an imaginary person who combines the common characteristics of creators. As embodied by an imaginary woman, the characteristics are as follows: EC comes from outside a major city but not so far removed that she is uninformed. EC s family is neither wealthy nor poor but is reasonably comfortable. EC s upbringing is fairly strict, and her closest friend is outside her immediate family. EC s family is not especially educated, but they value learning. EC discovers her talent at an early age. As an adult, EC feels the need to test herself against others in her field, and she moves to the city. Once she makes a major breakthrough in her field, EC becomes isolated from her peers. EC works nearly all the time and makes tremendous demands on herself. EC is self-confident, stubborn, and able to deal with adversity. EC has a second major breakthrough in her field about 10 years after the first. EC lives a long time, gains many followers, and makes contributions in her field until her death. 246 CHAPTER 9

2 Watch the Video Explore topics on the psychological study of intelligence. Most of the famous creators Gardner studied had to struggle to win acceptance for their ideas. When acceptance came too easily, some even made a special effort to be unconventional because they felt it made them more creative. Gardner points out that each and every characteristic will not be true for all creative individuals. However, as a general profile, quite a few of the details should hold true. As you will learn in this chapter, creativity is not the same as intelligence. But the seven major figures Gardner profiled possessed both exceptional creativity and exceptional intelligence. CHAPTER 9 INTELLIGENCE Chapter at a Glance SECTION 1: What Is Intelligence? Intelligence is different from achievement. Psychologists have developed several different theories of intelligence. SECTION 2: Measurement of Intelligence Psychologists use tests to measure a person s intelligence. Intelligence tests must be both reliable and valid. Problems with the use and design of intelligence tests have led to some controversies. SECTION 3: Differences in Intelligence Most people have average intelligence. There are several levels of mental retardation. The gifted have high intelligence and special talent. Creativity is independent of intelligence. SECTION 4: What Influences Intelligence? Genetic factors have a strong influence on intelligence. A nurturing environment promotes intellectual development in children. Advanced age limits some aspects of intelligence. What do you think? Artist Pablo Picasso s high spatialrelations intelligence led him to invent new styles and helped him to create masterpieces of visual art. 1. What seven types of intelligence did Gardner s Exceptional Creators demonstrate? 2. What living person do you consider an Exceptional Creator? How does he or she exhibit the common characteristics of creators? INTELLIGENCE 247

3 SEC TION 1 What Is Intelligence? Before You Read Main Idea Reading Focus Vocabulary Psychologists have many different theories of intelligence. 1. How is human intelligence a puzzle? 2. What are some of the leading theories of intelligence? achievement intelligence Use a graphic organizer like this one to take notes on intelligence. Theory Description Kasparov vs. the Computer Can a computer be a Grand Master? Garry Kasparov reigned as world chess champion from 1985 to One of his rare defeats during this period came in a 1997 match against an IBM supercomputer known as Deep Blue. In a 1996 match, Kasparov had beaten Deep Blue handily: three wins, two draws, and one loss. But through five games of the rematch, Deep Blue held Kasparov to one win, three draws, and one loss. In the sixth game, a tired Kasparov accidentally reversed two steps in a well-known defensive maneuver. Deep Blue immediately took advantage by taking Kasparov s queen. Kasparov soon admitted defeat. 248 CHAPTER 9 Deep Blue was an example of artificial intelligence (AI), a broad field that involves the creation of thinking machines. These machines include everything from industrial robots to speech-recognition devices to game-playing computers. A computer designed specifically for one particular intellectual task, as Deep Blue was, is called an expert system. Although it could be an expert, can any computer be truly intelligent? Some computers do one particular task better than humans. But no computer can perform as many different tasks as the human brain. After retiring from competitive chess in 2005, Kasparov turned his attention to Russian politics. Deep Blue was built only to beat Kasparov. After its victory, IBM disassembled the machine.

4 The Intelligence Puzzle Intelligence is one characteristic that sets humans apart from other forms of life. Although other animals display intelligence, humans capacity to adapt to changing conditions sets them apart from other animals. The human ability to think about abstract ideas, such as space and time, also sets us apart from all other species. Intelligence has even expanded our senses, enabling us to invent microscopes and telescopes to see things too small or distant for the naked eye to detect. This chapter examines how intelligence is defined and measured. It also discusses differences in intelligence and considers the factors that influence intelligence. The nature of intelligence varies. People can be very intelligent and not know many facts about academic subjects because they have not studied. People can also know a great deal because they have worked hard, even if their intelligence is not particularly high. But what exact ly is intelligence? Understanding Achievement According to psychologists, one thing intelligence is not is achievement, which refers to knowledge and skills gained from experience. In other words, achievement focuses on the things that you know and can do. Thus, achievement involves specific content, such as Spanish, calculus, history, psychology, biology, art, or music. The relationship between achievement and experience is obvious. If you have spent many hours reading about the Civil War, for example, then you will probably do well on a test about that period in U.S. history. You will have gained knowledge on the subject of the Civil War. But if you were tested on the Revolutionary War instead, you might not do as well. Although intelligence is not the same as achievement, intelligence can provide the basis for achieve ment. Intelligence makes achievement pos sible by giving people the ability to learn. For example, consider two students who are both fascinated by mathematics. Suppose that they both take exactly the same math classes and spend the same amount of time studying the subject. The only difference between the two is that student A is more intelligent than student B. Despite the equality of opportunity and effort, student A will gain more knowledge and skills from the mathematics classes than student B. Intelligence helps student A achieve more than student B. Understanding Intelligence Now we know what intelligence is not. But what is it? Intelligence can be defined as the abilities to learn from experience, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with others. Within that definition, psychologists have differing theories about what exactly makes up intelligence. Analyze What is the difference between achievement and intelligence? Reading Check Theories of Intelligence Some people have very strong science or math skills. Others are talented in music or art. Still others have the ability to get along well with other people. Are all of these abilities signs of intelligence? Is any of them? How many factors are involved in intelligence? Through out human history, many philosophers and scientists have speculated about the answers to these questions. The Greek philosopher Plato devoted much of his writing to examining the nature of intelligence and the human mind. French philosopher Blaise Pascal suggested that there were two types of intelligence: mathematical and intuitive. In the 1800s, the rise of psychology as a science led to new theories of intelligence. Spearman s Two-factor Theory Around 1900, psychologist Charles Spearman observed that people who do well on one type of intelligence test tend to do well on others, too. He suggested that general intelligence, which he labeled g, underlies all of our intellectual abilities. The g factor represents the abilities to reason and to solve problems. The SATs, which break intellectual skills into verbal, quantitative, and writing subtests, reflect a more or less unified factor, which some psychologists refer to as g. At the same time, all people are better at some things than others such as math, music, or writing. For this reason, Spearman suggested that specific, or s, factors account for people s specific abilities. Taken together, g and s explained Spearman s observations. INTELLIGENCE 249

5 ACADEMIC VOCABULARY facility ability or aptitude Thurstone s Theory of Primary Mental Abilities Many psychologists accepted Spearman s two-factor theory of intelligence. One who took exception was L. L. Thurstone, a specialist in psychological testing. In the 1930s Thurstone argued that Spearman s tests were flawed. Thurstone s own tests showed that instead of one general intelligence, there were seven primary mental abilities : word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, facility with numbers, memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed. Further testing led him to include something similar to Spearman s g in his theory. Gardner s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Later psychologists began to wonder whether all forms of intelligence could be measured through testing. Psychologist Howard Gardner considered a wide variety of studies and cultures to develop a new theory. In 1983 Gardner proposed a set of seven intelligences, which he later expanded to nine. Sternberg s Triarchic Model Sternberg divided intelligence according to the way people process information. Everyone is capable of using the three types of intelligence to some degree. But each person tends to excel at one type. This chart shows some tasks performed by each type of intelligence. Analytical Intelligence calculating expenses and profits diagramming a sentence measuring the results of a chemistry experiment Creative Intelligence painting a portrait writing a song cooking a meal with the ingredients on hand Practical Intelligence changing a tire negotiating with an employer leading a group on a tour of your school Skills Focus INTERPRETING CHARTS What kind of intelligence are you using when you answer test questions? Explain. verbal, or linguistic, intelligence logical-mathematical intelligence visual-spatial intelligence bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (such as dancers and athletes have) musical-rhythmic intelligence interpersonal intelligence (sensitivity to other people s feelings) intrapersonal intelligence (insight into one s own inner feelings) naturalist intelligence (understanding of nature and the laws that govern natural behavior) existential intelligence (insight into the larger philosophical issues of life) Gardner refers to these talents or abilities as intelligences because they can be quite different from one another. In addition, he proposes that the different intelligences are independent of each other. For example, one student might have strong scientific ability but little talent at music. Another student might have special musical-rhythmic ability but few athletic skills. A student athlete might have highly developed bodily-kinesthetic skills but limited scientific abilities. Critics of Gardner s theory of multiple intelligences state that exceptional abilities in the musical or bodily-kinesthetic areas are not really what is meant by intelligence. His critics argue that those skills are special talents and that being talented is not the same thing as being intelligent. Sternberg s Triarchic Theory In 1985 psychologist Robert Sternberg published his triarchic theory of intelligence. This theory breaks intelligence into the following three factors: analytical intelligence (the type of intelligence we use in academic courses) creative intelligence practical intelligence Some people might excel in their schoolwork, while other people might be more creative or have more practical intelligence, or street smarts. Practical intelligence includes abilities such as knowing how to discuss a grade with a teacher or what to do if you discover that you have lost your wallet. 250 CHAPTER 9

6 Some students with limited analytical skills do very well in school and afterward because they are creative or have street smarts. We often use more than one of Sternberg s three factors at the same time. If you were doing an experiment for an upcoming science fair, you might use practical intelligence to plan your time and to obtain the materials you need. You would use your analytical intelligence to interpret the results of your experiment. In addition, you would use your creative intelligence to design the display for your project. Emotional Intelligence Psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer became interested in why smart people are not always as successful as might be expected. In 1990 they proposed yet another kind of intelligence: emotional intelligence. The theory gained popularity in 1995 with the publication of the book Emotional Intelligence by psychologist Daniel Goleman. Emotional intelligence, said Goleman, consists of five factors that are involved in success in school or on the job: Self-awareness: the ability to recognize our own feelings. If we know how we feel, we can better cope with our feelings. Mood management: the ability to distract oneself from an uncomfortable feeling. Although we may not be able to prevent feelings of anger or sadness, we do have some control over how long the feelings last. Rather than dwell on bad feelings, we can distract ourselves or make changes to improve our situation. Self-motivation: the ability to move ahead with confidence and enthusiasm. People who are self-motivators sometimes accomplish more than less motivated people who obtain higher scores on intelligence tests. Impulse control: the ability to delay pleasure until the task at hand has been accomplished. A student who resists the temptation to watch television until her or his homework is done may do better in school than a student who puts off homework until later. People skills: the ability to empathize, understand, communicate, and cooperate with others. People skills help us get along with others, and getting along with others helps us in school and on the job. A class clown may have exceptional people skills. According to the new theory, such people could be considered emotionally intelligent. Emotional intelligence captured the interest of many psychologists and led to new research on the subject. Summarize Name and describe the theory of intelligence that suggested that there was a single, basic intelligence. Reading Check SECTION 1 Assessment Reviewing Main Ideas and Vocabulary 1. Define What is intelligence? 2. Identify What seven forms of intelligence did Thurstone propose? Thinking Critically 3. Summarize How did Spearman use g and s to explain intelligence? 4. Explain What did Spearman and Thurstone s theories of intelligence have in common that later psychologists began to question? 5. Support a Position Do you agree that all nine of Gardner s intelligences are really forms of intelligence? If so, choose one of the non-academic intelligences and explain why it qualifies as a form of intelligence. If not, choose one and explain why you think it is not a form of intelligence. Online Quiz 6. Compare Using your notes and a graphic organizer like the one below, align Gardner s nine intelligences with Sternberg s triarchic model. Gardner FOCUS ON WRITING Sternberg thinkcentral.com 7. Descriptive Decide which of Sternberg s three types of intelligence is your strongest. Write a paragraph describing a situation in which you displayed this form of intelligence. INTELLIGENCE 251

7 SECTION 2 Measurement of Intelligence Before You Read Main Idea Psychologists have developed different kinds of intelligence tests. To be useful, the tests must be reliable and valid. Reading Focus 1. What are the two most widely used intelligence tests? 2. How are test reliability and validity measured? 3. What are some controversies and problems associated with intelligence tests? Vocabulary mental age intelligence quotient transformed score reliability test-retest reliability validity Use a graphic organizer like this one to take notes on intelligence testing. Measurement of Intelligence People Just Keep Getting SMARTER Why do scores keep rising on intelligence tests? Educators, politicians, and the media frequently worry over declining academic standards and students who don t care. But psychologist James Flynn discovered something that might brighten the worriers mood: people actually seem to be getting smarter, not dumber. While researching intelligence tests used by the U.S. military, Flynn discovered something odd. Each time the tests were updated, some recruits would take both the old and the new version. And each time, their average score was higher on the old test than on the new test. Since IQ scores reflect the intelligence of the general population, the recruits compared more favorably against people from several years before than against people today. In other words, average intelligence was rising. To confirm his findings, Flynn looked at results from several types of intelligence tests and many different cultures. Regardless of the type of test or the nationality of the test taker, he found that people seemed to be getting smarter. After publishing his results, the trend became known as the Flynn Effect. Why is this happening? Flynn considered and ruled out several theories. Better nutrition doesn t seem to be the answer; neither does better schooling. One of the sturdiest hypotheses is that as our society becomes more complex and more technological, our brains are faced with more challenges from an early age. This rich environment may help us make the most of our mental capabilities. 252 CHAPTER 9

8 Two Intelligence Tests You have probably taken many tests throughout your school career. Some of the tests you have taken or will take are achievement tests they show what you have learned. Other tests are aptitude tests, which are intended to predict your ability to learn new skills. There are also tests that are designed to measure intelligence. The most widely used intelligence tests are the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler scales. The Stanford-Binet Scale In the early 1900s, leaders of the French public school system were interested in finding a test that could identify children who were likely to need special educational attention. In response, French psychologist Alfred Binet devised the first modern intelligence test. The original version of the test was first used in Binet assumed that intelligence increased with age, so his test contained questions for children of different age levels. Older children were expected to answer more difficult questions. Children earned months of credit for correct answers. Binet s test yielded a score called a mental age. A child s mental age is not the same thing as his or her chronological age. Mental age (MA) shows the intellectual level at which a child is functioning. For example, a child with an MA of six is functioning, intellectually, like the typical six-year-old, even if the child is not six years old. An MA of nine is above average for a seven-year-old. The same MA of nine is below average for an 11-year-old. In 1916 Binet s test was brought to the United States and revised by Louis Terman of Stanford University. For this reason, the test became known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS). The version of the Stanford-Binet test used today provides an intelligence quotient, not an MA. An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a number that reflects the relationship between a child s mental age and his or her actual, or chronological, age (CA). The IQ is a quotient because we use division to obtain the number. The IQ was initially computed using the formula IQ = (mental age divided by chronological age) 100, or IQ = Mental Age (MA) Chronological Age (CA) 100 For example, a child with an MA of nine and a CA of nine would have an IQ of 100. STANFORD BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE These items are similar to those that appear on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. That test includes tasks for age levels from two to adult. The Stanford-Binet test produces an intelligence quotient, or IQ, that compares mental age to chronological age. INTERACTIVE Age Level Sample Item 1 Sample Item 2 2 years Children know basic vocabulary words. When the examiner says, Show me the hands (or other part), they can point to the proper parts of a doll. 4 years Children show language and classifying ability by filling in a missing word: Father is a man; mother is a. 9 years Children can point out absurdities. Sally has a bicycle with square wheels. What is silly about that? Children can match a model by building a tower made up of four blocks. Children show general understanding by answering questions such as: Why do people have cars? Children show language ability by responding to queries such as: What number rhymes with sea? Adult Adults show vocabulary knowledge and conceptual thinking by explaining the differences between word pairs such as honor and glory. Adults show spatial skills by answering questions such as: If a car turned to the left to head south, in what direction was it heading before it turned? Skills Focus INTERPRETING CHARTS At what age are children expected to recognize absurdities? Interactive Feature thinkcentral.com INTELLIGENCE 253

9 ACADEMIC VOCABULARY assess to judge or determine Children who answer test items as competently as older children have IQs above 100. An 8-year-old who does as well as the average 10-year-old will attain an IQ of 125. Children who do not do as well as typical children their age attain IQ scores below 100. The intelligence quotient is an example of a transformed score any score that has been changed from a raw score in a systematic way. Psychologists transform raw scores so that test results can be more easily compared. The Wechsler Scales The Stanford-Binet is the classic individual intelligence test. Today, however, David Wechsler s scales are more widely used. Wechsler developed intelligence tests for children and adults. The most widely used test is the revised Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-R). The Wechsler scales consist of several subtests. Each subtest measures a different intellectual skill. Some of Wechsler s subtests measure verbal skills. Others assess performance skills. In general, verbal subtests involve words and ideas; performance subtests focus on spatial relations. Both verbal and performance subtests require reasoning ability. The Wechsler scales reveal relative strengths and weaknesses as well as overall intellectual functioning. The Wechsler scales differ from the Stanford-Binet test in several important ways. The Wechsler scales do not use the concept of mental age, although they still use the term IQ. The Stanford-Binet test measures verbal ability, whereas the Wechsler scales measure both verbal and nonverbal abilities. Because the Wechsler tests yield three scores (verbal, nonverbal, and combined), they can be used to identify particular learning disabilities. For example, if an individual s verbal score is significantly lower than his or her nonverbal score, this might indicate a reading disability. Scores on the Wechsler tests are based on a comparison of a person s answers with the answers of others in the same age group. The average score for any age level is 100. About 50 percent of scores fall within a broad range of 90 to 110. About 2 percent of people who take the tests score above 130, and about 2 percent score below 70. Identify What is now the most widely used intelligence test? Reading Check Reliability and Validity The results of intelligence tests affect people s lives, so psychologists hold the tests to high standards. Intelligence tests (and other types of psychological tests) must meet two criteria: they must be reliable and valid. Test Reliability Imagine that every time you measured the width of your desk with a tape measure, it showed a different result. If this happened, we would say that the tape measure was an unreliable form of measurement. The reliability of a test refers to its consistency. A test or any other method of assessment is reliable if it gives a highly similar score every time it is used. A reliable intelligence test should obtain similar IQ scores for the same individual on different testing occasions. There are different ways of showing a test s reliability. One of the most common is called test-retest reliability. Test-retest reliability is determined by comparing scores earned by the same person on the same test taken at different times. The Stanford-Binet and Wechsler tests are both highly reliable. For example, if you took the Stanford-Binet in your first year of high school and again in your senior year, your IQ score would probably be nearly the same both times. Keep in mind that nearly the same does not mean identical. Scores for the same person on different testing occasions may vary somewhat. A person may be more motivated or attentive one day than another. Also, scores may improve as subjects become familiar with the test format. In addition, intelligence is not fixed it varies over time. Some intellectual skills may increase with education; some may decline with age, injury, or health problems. Test Validity A test has validity if it measures what it is supposed to measure. To see whether a test is valid, test scores are compared with outside standards or norms. A proper standard for checking the validity of a musical aptitude test might be the ability to learn to play a musical instrument. Tests of musical aptitude therefore should predict ability to learn to play a musical instrument. What standards might be used to check the validity of intelligence tests? Most people agree that intelligence plays a role in academic success. Intelli gence test scores should 254 CHAPTER 9

10 TYPICAL SUBTESTS FROM THE WECHSLER SCALES The Wechsler scales consist of subtests that measure different skills. These are examples of items similar to those that appear on the various subtests. Verbal Subtests General Information 1. How many legs does a dog have? 2. How many nickels make a quarter? 3. What is ice made of? 4. Who wrote Harry Potter? 5. What is salt? Similarities 1. How are a wolf and a fox alike? 2. How are a saw and a hammer alike? 3. How are a day and a week alike? 4. How are a circle and a square alike? Performance Subtests Digit Symbol The subject is tested on the ability to associate meaningless figures with specific numbers. Block Design The subject is tested on the ability to recreate geometric designs using colored blocks. Picture Completion The subject is asked to identify what is missing from a picture like this. General Comprehension 1. What should you do if you see someone forget her coat when she leaves a restaurant? 2. Why does some food need to be stored in a refrigerator? 3. Why is copper often used in electrical wires? Vocabulary This test consists simply of asking What is a? or What does mean? The words cover a wide range of difficulty. Picture Arrangement The subject is tested on the ability to arrange pictures such as these in a sequence so that they tell a story. Arithmetic 1. Sam had two pieces of fruit, and Joe gave him four more. How many pieces of fruit did Sam now have? 2. Four women divided 12 eggs equally among themselves. How many eggs did each person receive? 3. If two buttons cost 20 cents, how much would a dozen buttons cost? therefore predict school grades. They do so moderately well. Intelligence is also thought to contribute, in part, to job success. Scores on intelligence tests have been shown to predict adult occupational status reasonably well. Thus, these intelligence tests seem to be reasonably valid. However, because there is considerable disagreement about what intelligence is, some psychologists believe that it is difficult to make definitive statements about the validity of IQ tests. Infer What scores would you expect if a person took an unreliable test several different times? Reading Check Controversies and Problems Intelligence testing has become an accepted part of our culture. But the history of intelligence testing is full of controversies, some of which have yet to be resolved. In addition, psychologists point to problems with intelligence tests that may affect results. Controversies In the late 1800s many began to see intelligence testing as a way to improve society. Movements sought to elevate the most intelligent people to positions of importance. But they also wanted to reduce the numbers of the least intelligent people. INTELLIGENCE 255

11 TESTS THAT MINIMIZE CULTURAL BIAS Find the pattern in the first two rows. Identify the symbol that completes the third row. Do math tests have cultural bias? Explain. In the early 1900s the United States used intelligence tests to determine which immigrants would be allowed into the country. Those who did not score well were deported. During the same period, many states sterilized people who were found to be mentally defective. The horrors perpetrated by Nazi Germany in the name of social purity brought an end to these misuses of intelligence tests. Another controversy around intelligence testing is cultural bias. Critics charge that some tests give an advantage to a particular group because they are created by members of that group. People who are not members of that group would find such tests more difficult. For example, a question about building an igloo would be easier for Inuit, who live in the Arctic, but more difficult for most other people. In theory, tests that are free from cultural bias ought to be possible. The challenge is to develop questions that test a particular skill regardless of the test-taker s culture. Problems Intelligence tests are not perfect. Some test takers do better than others, but not necessarily because they are more intelligent. Other factors such as education or economic background can make a difference. Motivation to do well also contributes to performance on intelligence tests. Faced with frequent failure, a person may begin to expect to fail. Without the motivation to try his or her best, failure becomes more likely. Expectations are especially important when test takers are members of a group with negative stereotypes. When people know about a negative stereotype that applies to them regardless of the truth of the stereotype the expectation can be self-confirming. This is called stereotype threat. Studies have shown that reminding subjects about a negative stereotype before they take a test can result in performance that does not match true abilities. Conversely, subjects who are reminded of positive stereotypes tend to perform better than expected. Identify Supporting Details What are two ways in which an intelligence test might show cultural bias? Reading Check SECTION 2 Reviewing Main Ideas and Vocabulary 1. Define What is mental age? 2. Explain Why is IQ called a quotient? 3. Recall What two criteria must all intelligence tests meet? Thinking Critically Assessment 4. Evaluate If a 10-year-old boy takes the Stanford-Binet test and scores as well as a 12-year-old, what would his IQ be? 5. Explain How is test-retest reliability determined? 6. Interpret How is the following question culturally biased? Lawrence and Molly go to the opera once a month. About how many arias do they hear each year? Online Quiz thinkcentral.com 7. Compare and Contrast Using your notes and a graphic organizer like the one below, compare the Stanford-Binet test to the Wechsler scales. Similarities FOCUS ON WRITING Differences 8. Persuasive A politician proposes a new law to require voters to have an average score or higher on an intelligence test. Anyone with a below-average score cannot vote. Write a letter to the editor explaining the pitfalls of this proposal. 256 CHAPTER 9

12 SECTION 3 Differences in Intelligence Before You Read Main Idea Most people have average intelligence. A few have either very high or very low intelligence. Reading Focus 1. What is average intelligence? 2. How is mental retardation defined? 3. Does giftedness just mean being very smart? 4. What is creativity? Vocabulary mental retardation gifted prodigy creativity Use a graphic organizer like this one to take notes on differences in intelligence. Average Gifted Creative Does autism help Temple Grandin understand animals? Autism is a complex neurological disorder that affects millions of people. Generally, autistic people have difficulty interacting with others and may focus intensely on one object or subject. For many years, autism was treated as a kind of mental retardation. As the disorder has become better understood, psychologists have realized that some autistic people have normal intelligence. And a few people with autism display extraordinary gifts. Temple Grandin, for example, has autism and a gift for understanding animals. She first realized this ability as a teenager. She felt more at ease among the animals at her aunt s ranch than among people. Grandin pursued her interest in animals and eventually earned advanced degrees in animal science. While completing her degrees, Grandin began visiting a meat-packing plant, where she observed that the animals were in distress. She realized that the design of the chutes and pens was one of the chief causes of stress for the animals. The manager of the plant, who had gotten to know Grandin through her many visits, offered her the chance to redesign the layout to make it easier on the animals. Her design succeeded, and she began a career designing more animal-friendly environments. Temple Grandin credits the support she received at every step of her life for helping her make the most of her talents. As more autistic people receive such support, their intelligence will shine through. Intelligence AND Autism INTELLIGENCE 257

13 Complete a Webquest at thinkcentral.com on mental retardation. Number of People 55 Retardation Borderline Average Intelligence Despite the limits of intelligence tests, they do have some uses. One of the primary functions of intelligence tests is to help identify people whose intelligence is out of the ordinary at either end of the scale. The education system best suits people of average intelligence. Those with extremely high or extremely low intelligence need special accommodations. The average IQ score is 100. This is by design. Test-makers administer drafts of Statistically Speaking... IQ Scores Psychologists refer to this bell-shaped graph as a normal distribution. Many traits, including intelligence, are distributed along normal curves. DISTRIBUTION OF IQ SCORES Slow learner Low average 50% 95% 99% High average Above average Superior Gifted 50% Percentage of people whose intelligence scores range from 90 to to 10 Estimate of how many points intelligence scores rise every 10 years 100 million Approximate number of standardized tests given to U.S. students each year Skills Focus at the center? INTERPRETING GRAPHS Why is the bell curve tallest their tests to sample populations in order to confirm that the tests are reliable and valid. They use the results to calibrate how the tests are scored. The mean average score becomes the mid-point, or 100. When the general population takes the test, a person s score should reflect her or his intelligence in relation to all the other people taking the test. About half of the people in the United States attain scores in the broad average range from 90 to 110. Nearly 95 percent attain scores between 70 and 130. What about the other 5 percent? People who attain IQ scores of 70 or below are defined by psychologists as having mental retardation. People who attain scores of 130 or above are regarded as gifted. In both cases, special help is needed. Find the Main Idea What is the average score on an intelligence test? Reading Check Mental Retardation While having an IQ score at or below 70 is the technical definition of mental retardation, there are other indicators as well. Mental retardation is also associated with problems in communication, taking care of oneself, social skills, self-direction, travel in the community, and vocational training. There are several levels of mental retardation. Mild Retardation About 80 percent of people with retardation are classified as mildly retarded, with IQs ranging from 50 to 70. Such people often are not obviously retarded, but as children they have more difficulty than most other children in learning to walk, in feeding themselves, and in learning to talk. Most children with mild retardation are able to learn to read and do arithmetic. As adults, they often are able to take care of themselves and hold jobs. They may, however, need occasional guidance and support. Moderate Retardation People with IQ scores from 35 to 49 have moderate retardation. They can learn to speak, to feed and dress themselves, and to work under supportive conditions. They usually do not learn to read or to solve math problems. Children with Down syndrome are most likely to be classified in the moderately retarded range. 258 CHAPTER 9

14 Although adults with moderate retardation are usually not capable of self-maintenance, they can participate in simple recreation and travel alone in familiar places. Severe Retardation People with severe mental retardation IQs of 20 to 34 usually require constant supervision. They may have some understanding of speech and be able to respond. Although they can perform daily routines and repetitive activities, they need continuing direction in a protective environment. Some children in this category can learn some basic self-help tasks, such as self-feeding. Profound Retardation People with profound retardation IQs below 20 barely communicate. They may show basic emotional responses, but they cannot feed or dress themselves and are dependent on other people for their care throughout their lives. Causes of Retardation Retardation can be caused by any of several factors. Accidents that result in brain damage and difficulties during childbirth can cause retardation. Pregnant women who abuse alcohol or drugs, are malnourished, or who have other health problems may give birth to children who are mentally retarded. Retardation also can be caused by genetic disorders or abnormalities, such as Down syndrome. Identify What are the four levels of mental retardation? Reading Check Giftedness Technically speaking, people who are gifted have IQ scores of 130 or above. However, giftedness (like retardation) may be more than just a matter of IQ. In general, to be gifted is to possess outstanding talent or to show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with other people of the same age, experience, or environment. The most gifted children are sometimes called child prodigies. A prodigy develops special skill in a particular talent or discipline in childhood. Prodigies perform at a level comparable to, or above, most adults in that field. Many prodigies benefit from parents who encourage and help develop their child s talent. Some famous prodigies are listed here. Famous Prodigies Music Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Mozart s father, Leopold, trained him as a musician from an early age. Mozart wrote his first composition at age 5 and gave his first public performance when he was 6. He had written 8 symphonies by the time he was 12. Mozart composed some of the world s greatest music. Math Visual Arts Gian Lorenzo Bernini Bernini first learned to sculpt in the workshop of his father, a sculptor. By the age of 14, Bernini was crafting portrait busts for wealthy patrons. He created his first masterpieces in his early 20s. As a sculptor, architect, and painter, Bernini established the baroque style. Sports Venus and Serena Williams The Williams sisters father, Richard, raised them to be tennis stars. They each began winning amateur tournaments at the age of 10 and turned professional at age 14. Venus, the older sister, ranked 25th in the world by age 17. Serena ranked 21st in the world by age 16. They have both won many Grand Slam tournaments. Ruth Lawrence After being tutored at home by her father, Ruth Lawrence entered Oxford University at age 11. Two years later, she graduated with honors with a degree in mathematics. The next year, she had earned a second degree in physics. By the time Lawrence was 17, she had earned a doctorate in math. INTELLIGENCE 259

15 ACADEMIC VOCABULARY diminished reduced or weakened CONNECTION Creative Genius Albert Einstein was both very intelligent and very creative. Some researchers believe that motivation and creativity contribute to giftedness. Others emphasize the importance of insight. And many educators consider children with outstanding abilities to be gifted. The abilities can be in specific areas such as music, language arts, mathematics, or science. Children may be gifted in terms of leadership abilities or creativity, or they may exhibit excellence in the visual or performing arts. On the basis of research and experience, educators generally recognize the importance of identifying gifted children early and providing them with rich, varied learning opportunities. Special schooling helps gifted children to develop their potential. Reading Check be gifted? Creativity Summarize What does it mean to Giftedness is often linked with creativity. Creativity is the ability to invent new solutions to problems or to create original or ingenious materials. For example, some of Albert Einstein s best work grew out of his ability to visualize difficult problems. He developed the theory of special relativity by imagining what light would look like if an observer could move at the speed of light. Einstein himself recognized the value of creativity. He once said, The true sign of intelligence is not knowledge but imagination. Although creativity may be a part of giftedness, a person can be highly creative without being gifted. In fact, a person can even be substantially below average in intelligence and yet have very high creativity. English psychiatrist Lorna Selfe identified one such person, a girl named Nadia. Nadia had diminished mental skills and could not speak. How ever, she had a remarkable talent for drawing, and her creative ability was indisputable. Nadia exemplified savant syndrome a person who has autism or mental retardation yet exhibits extraordinary skill, even brilliance, in a particular field. About 10 percent of people with autism display special skills, but fewer than 1 percent of people with other mental disabilities do. Research suggests that highly intelligent people are more likely than the average person to be particularly creative. Yet just as a high level of creativity does not guarantee high intelligence, high intelligence does not guarantee high creativity. For example, a Canadian study of gifted children ages 9 to 11 found that they generally were more creative than children who were average in intelligence. How ever, this was only true for the group as a whole. Some of the gifted individuals were no more creative than the children who were average in intelligence. Draw Conclusions Are all creative people highly intelligent? Explain. Reading Check SECTION 3 Assessment Reviewing Main Ideas and Vocabulary 1. Define What is a prodigy? 2. Recall What is the technical definition of mental retardation? Thinking Critically 3. Support a Position Does it make sense for the education system to be tailored to the needs of people of average intelligence? Why or why not? 4. Identify Cause and Effect What are some of the possible causes of mental retardation? 5. Elaborate How could someone be highly intelligent without being considered gifted? Online Quiz 6. Explain How could someone be highly creative without being highly intelligent? 7. Categorize Using your notes and a graphic organizer like the one below, describe the four levels of mental retardation. Level of Retardation FOCUS ON WRITING Characteristics thinkcentral.com 8. Expository Imagine that someone creating an intelligence test accidentally used only extremely smart people to calibrate the test. Explain what would happen when the test was administered to the general population. 260 CHAPTER 9

16 SECTION 4 What Influences Intelligence? Before You Read Main Idea Both heredity and environment influence a person s intelligence. Reading Focus 1. How does your genetic makeup influence your intelligence? 2. How does your environment influence your intelligence? 3. What are some of the connections between aging and intelligence? Vocabulary heritability fluid intelligence crystallized intelligence Use a graphic organizer like this one to take notes on influences on intelligence. Genetics Environment Age Hungry to Learn Can hunger make you smarter? The brain is part of the body, so the state of your body affects your intelligence. One commonly-recognized example of this is the effect of overeating. Everyone knows you shouldn t eat a big meal before an important test you ll be too sleepy to do your best. Scientists have found that the opposite approach might help. When the stomach is empty, it produces ghrelin, a hormone that signals that it s time to eat. But ghrelin also boosts learning, memory, and spatial reasoning. Mice that were injected with ghrelin performed better than other mice when running mazes and performing other tests of their intelligence. Does this mean you should starve yourself before your next big exam? Probably not. First of all, the scientists point out that more research needs to be done to establish whether hunger would help improve human intelligence. Secondly, the brain needs food to function. Too little nourishment might boost ghrelin levels, but it would also starve the brain of fuel. As with so many things, moderation is probably the best choice: take your test fed, but not full. INTELLIGENCE 261

17 ACADEMIC VOCABULARY colleagues co-workers or associates Genetic Influences on Intelligence Through the 1900s, a great debate took place in the scientific world. Scientists wondered whether we are more influenced by our genetics or by our environment. The question applies to many human characteristics but few more so than intelligence. We will look first at the genetic side of the debate. Are all people born with the same amount of intelligence? How do genetic factors affect the level of intelligence we have? Researchers who study the genetic factors in intelligence have used kinship studies and adoptee studies to explore questions such as these. Kinship Studies If genetic factors are involved in intelligence, then closely related people should be more alike in terms of intelligence test scores than distantly related or unrelated people. For this reason, psychologists have studied intelligence test scores of related people. Identical twins have often been used in these studies. Because they have exactly the same genetic makeup, their test scores should be identical if intelligence is solely inherited. Any difference in scores would mean that other factors are also involved. Psychologist Thomas Bouchard and his colleagues compiled the results of more than 100 studies on the relationship between heredity and intelligence. They found that the intelligence test scores of identical twins are more similar than those of any other group of people. This finding holds true even when the twins are reared apart and grow up in different environments. Similarities in intelligence test scores between pairs of fraternal twins, other brothers or sisters, and parents and children are moderate. Similarities in intelligence between children and foster parents and between cousins are weak. What does all this mean? It means that genes do seem to play some role in intelligence. But how great a role does inheritance play? Heritability is the extent to which variations in a trait from person to person can be explained by genetic factors. Most studies suggest that the heritability of intelligence ranges from 40 to 60 percent. That is, about half of the differences in intelligence test scores among people can be accounted for by heredity. Adoptee Studies Some studies have compared the intelligence test scores of adopted children to those of their biological parents and their adoptive parents. If children are separated from their biological parents at early ages but their intelligence test scores remain very similar to those of their biological parents, it is probably because of genetic influences. On the other hand, if the intelligence test scores of adopted children are more like those of their adoptive parents, it is probably because of environmental influences. Most studies of adopted children have found that their intelligence test scores are more like those of the biological parents than those of the adoptive parents. Thus, there seems to be further evidence of heredity s role in intelligence. Other psychologists, however, argue that an overemphasis on heredity can undermine parental and educational efforts to help children learn. Parents and educators are most effective when they believe their efforts will improve children s knowledge and skills. Because parents and educators cannot change children s genetic codes, it is useful for them to assume that effective parenting and teaching can make a difference. Draw Conclusions Whose intelligence test score will probably be closest to yours: a parent, a cousin, or a neighbor? Explain. Reading Check Environmental Influences on Intelligence Bouchard and his colleagues found that for each type of kinship, from identical twins to parents and children, intelligence test scores are more alike for pairs of people who were reared together than for pairs who were reared apart. This result holds for identical twins, other brothers and sisters, and even people who are unrelated. These findings suggest that environmental factors also affect intelligence. A variety of studies have examined the influence of home environ ment, parenting style, schooling, and other environmental factors on intelligence. Home and Parenting Studies have shown that home environment and styles of parenting influence the development of intelligence. 262 CHAPTER 9

18 Boosting Brainpower Many factors influence how well our brains work. A quick survey may reveal how common behaviors affect your academic performance. Quick Lab PROCEDURE 1 Take out a blank piece of paper but do not put your name on it. Answer the following questions about the past week: How many hours did you spend exercising? How many hours of sleep did you get? How many caffeinated beverages did you consume during or before school? How many hours did you play a musical instrument? What were your scores on quizzes and tests? 2 Collect the answers, and order them by test scores. 3 Enter the results in a table with a column for each answer and a row for each student. ANALYSIS 1. As a class, analyze the results, and see if you can correlate any of the four factors with higher test scores. 2. Now do the same with lower test scores. 3. If you find a clear link between behaviors and test scores, write a short press release describing your findings. If not, discuss whether any of these behaviors affect academic performance. Quick Lab thinkcentral.com The following factors have been demonstrated to help improve intellectual functioning in children. The parents are emotionally and verbally responsive to their children s needs. The parents provide enjoyable and educational toys. The parents are involved in their children s activities. The parents provide varied daily experiences during the preschool years. The home environment is well-organized and safe. The children are encouraged to be independent to make their own decisions and to solve their own problems whenever possible. Preschool Programs Many preschool programs are designed to provide young children with enriched early experiences. These experiences are intended to develop intelligence and to prepare children for school. Many such programs exist, but one particularly well-known program is Head Start. Begun in 1965, Head Start was designed to give economically disadvantaged children a better start in school. Communities across the United States operate Head Start centers under the guidance of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Parental involvement is an important feature of Head Start. This program includes health, education, and social services for participating children and their families. In local Head Start centers, children become familiar with books. They also play word and number games; work with puzzles, drawing materials, toy animals, and dolls; and interact with teachers in a school-like setting. Preschool programs such as Head Start have been shown to increase the intelligence test scores, achievement test scores, and academic skills of participants. Preschool programs also appear to have long-term benefits. Graduates of these programs are less likely to repeat a grade or to be placed in classes for slow learners. They are more likely to finish high school, to attend college, and to earn high incomes. Participation in such programs even decreases the likelihood of juvenile delinquency and reliance on welfare programs. Summarize What did Bouchard find that demonstrates the importance of environment on intelligence? Reading Check INTELLIGENCE 263

19 Aging and Intelligence Psychologists are also concerned about factors that affect intelligence among adults, especially older adults. Most older people show some drop-off in intelligence as measured by scores on intelligence tests. The decline is usually most notable in timed test questions questions that must be answered within a certain amount of time. On the other hand, vocabulary skills can continue to expand for a lifetime. Slowed response times are part of a decline in fluid intelligence. These mental capacities allow us to respond quickly to novel situations or problems. What remains more stable, though, is crystallized intelligence the sum of our knowledge about the world. Crystallized intelligence can continue to grow throughout our lives. Biological changes contribute to some of the decline in fluid intelligence. However, older people who retain their health have very high levels of intellectual functioning. One study, conducted in Seattle, has been following intellectual changes in adults since The Seattle study has found that intellectual functioning in older people is linked to several environmental factors: level of income level of education a history of stimulating jobs intact family life attendance at cultural events, travel, and reading marriage to a spouse with a high level of intellectual functioning a flexible personality In general, the more of these factors that are pres ent in people s lives and the higher and stronger the factors are, the higher the level of intellec tual functioning. All things considered, intellectual functioning in people of all ages appears to reflect many genetic, physical, personal, and social factors. The fact that a person s genetically determined intellectual potential cannot be predicted makes it difficult to resolve the debate about the roles that genetics and environment play in intelligence. However, no matter what genes a person may have inherited, that person s intelligence is not fixed or unchangeable. People can, depending on their education and other factors, improve their intellectual functioning. Genetic factors give each person a range of pos sibilities. The environment influences the expression of these possibilities. Intelligence remains a complex concept that challenges psychologists, educators, and many others. Contrast What is the difference between fluid and crystallized intelligence? Reading Check SECTION 4 Assessment Reviewing Main Ideas and Vocabulary 1. Define What is heritability? 2. Identify Main Ideas What are the two broad categories of influences on intelligence? 3. Recall What type of intelligence tends to decline in older adults? Thinking Critically 4. Identify Cause and Effect Why are the IQ scores of identical twins closer than the IQ scores of any other group of people? 5. Explain What effect do preschool programs such as Head Start have on intelligence scores? Online Quiz thinkcentral.com 6. Summarize Using your notes and a graphic organizer like the one below, summarize the effects of environmental influences on intelligence. Home and Parenting FOCUS ON WRITING Preschool 7. Descriptive Imagine that your local government has asked for your help in designing a new program for senior citizens. They want the program to help senior citizens maintain their mental acuity, and they suggest basing it on the Seattle study. Briefly describe how your program would work. 264 CHAPTER 9

20 Current Research in Psychology Emotional Intelligence Influences Success If you are really smart, are you guaranteed to achieve success? Or does it take more than just book smarts to succeed? Despite the emphasis still placed on traditional measures of intelligence, researchers have found that other types of intelligence are just as important to success at school and work. In particular, emotional intelligence the ability to understand your own emotions and those of others turns out to play a significant role in success. Emotional intelligence includes the ability to resist temptation. Throughout most of the 1900s, when people thought of intelligence, they thought of the sort measured by the Stanford-Binet and similar tests. The results of standard intelligence tests seemed like a clear indicator of potential success in school and work. The real world is not so simple, however. The people who score highest don t necessarily achieve the greatest success. It isn t that traditional intelligence isn t important it takes a certain level of intelligence to be a doctor, for example but the smartest people aren t necessarily the most successful. Studies have found that IQ can account for as little as 10 percent of a person s success at work. Why is this? Psychologists began to investigate, and they found some surprising results. The executive recruiting firm Egon Zehnder International studied the experience, intelligence, and emotional intelligence of executives from around the world. They found that executives with low emotional intelligence were the most likely to fail, regardless of their experience and intelligence. Conversely, those with high emotional intelligence were the most likely to succeed (Fernández- Aráoz, 2007). One study of insurance salespeople found that optimism and pessimism can affect success. Among new salespeople, the optimists sold 37 percent more in their first two years than the pessimists. The company then decided to hire a group of salespeople who had failed the usual entrance exam but scored high on optimism. Those salespeople outsold the company average by 27 percent. Some studies show that IQ and emotional intelligence are related. At Stanford University, researchers asked four-year-old subjects to stay alone in a room with a marshmallow while the researcher left the room. If they could resist eating the marshmallow until the researcher returned, they could have a second marshmallow. Fourteen years later, the kids who had been able to wait for the second marshmallow scored about 200 points higher on the SAT than the kids who gave in to temptation. Success at school and work requires more than just emotional intelligence. But emotional intelligence seems to play a significant role. Thinking Critically Emotional intelligence has been shown to be an important factor of success in the workplace. 1. Interpret How is emotional intelligence related to IQ? 2. Discuss Name some careers for which emotional intelligence might be important. Explain your answer. Current Research thinkcentral.com INTELLIGENCE 265

21 Profile of a Genius What are the most important qualities for a genius to have? Who has met the profile of a genius? Reading and Activity Workbook Use the workbook to complete this lab. 1. Introduction Often when we hear the word genius, the image of Albert Einstein immediately comes to mind. But wasn t he simply a physics genius? Or perhaps if genius in music is mentioned, then Mozart or Beethoven might take the spot. And Leonardo da Vinci is often considered an all-around genius. With so many methods of qualifying what makes a person a genius, it has become a challenge to decide who is one and who is not. This lab will help you create a profile of a genius using the information learned in this chapter. Working in small groups, you will consider multiple factors before creating a profile, such as: which theory of intelligence you agree with, what method of testing is most indicative of genius, and what kind of upbringing might influence a person s intelligence. Once you have made these decisions, then your group can begin working on drafting a profile of the qualities you expect a genius to possess. Working in small groups organized by your teacher, begin going through each aspect of intelligence addressed in this chapter: theories, testing, and influences. Write down your group s opinions on each of these three areas to use as a foundation when composing the profile of a genius. In your groups begin using the information regarding intelligence to form a profile of a genius. Remember that even though there may be slight differences in opinion, you must come up with one profile as a group. Present your group s profile to the class. The other groups will have an opportunity to agree with or to challenge your decisions, so be prepared to defend your choices! After everyone has shared their profiles, you will look at descriptions of individuals considered to have genius qualities and choose which group s profile they best match. 2. Writing a Profile After your group has decided which theory (or theories) of intelligence you agree with, the ideal methods to test an individual, and what form of upbringing would be most likely to lead to genius-like qualities, then you can start working on a profile of a genius. Your profile will be similar to a job description. Many examples of job descriptions can be found on the Internet by searching for the words: job descriptions. 1 Create Basic Headings: The first step in writing a profile is deciding what your main headings are going to be. On the next page, there are some from which you can choose. You don t have to use all of them, and there are others that you can create on your own. 2 Fill In Specific Information: Once you have chosen the main headings for the profile, write in bulleted specifics for each of the headings. Try to list at least three items per heading. See the example of Education on the next page. 3 Defend Your Reasoning: Choose the group member whose paper is going to be presented to the class. Then, using another group member s copy of the profile, prepare your defenses for each of your choices. Remember that the other groups will be able to question your decisions, so it s best to be prepared ahead of time. If your group has enough members, assign one group member to each heading to defend it, should questions arise. 266 CHAPTER 9

22 From the classroom of January Rowe, Melissa High School, Melissa, TX 3. Presenting the Profile Once the groups have all finished their profiles, have one group at a time present their work before the class. Each group listening must ask at least one clarifying question, refute a group s choice, or make a suggestion when listening to the presentations of the other groups. 4. Put the Geniuses to the Test Once you have finished sharing each of your profiles with the class, put some of the individuals commonly referred to as geniuses to the test. Information can be found by simply using their names as an Internet search. 1 Find information on the genius of your choice on the Internet or in your library. Some examples of geniuses are shown on this page. There are many other individuals that you might be interested in profiling. 2 Have the class identify which group s profile best fits the genius. Search through their biographies for similar headings or subheadings. 3 Identify how many categories of the profile match this individual. Calculate a percentage of corresponding qualities. 4 Label the individual as GENIUS or AVERAGE. EXAMPLES FOR PROFILES Basic Profile Headings Definition Distinguishing Characteristics Standards Knowledge of... Ability to... Experience Education Upbringing Test Scores Personal Attributes Interpersonal Skills Leadership Skills Awards Certifications Hobbies Your genius profile should include headings such as Education. For each heading, make a list of specific accomplishments you would expect from a genius. Examples of Geniuses Confucius Leonardo Da Vinci Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart George Washington Carver Marie Curie Albert Einstein Srinivasa Ramanujan Stephen Hawking Marilyn Vos Savant Kim Ung-yong Alia Sabur Applying What You ve Learned thinkcentral.com INTELLIGENCE 267

23 CHAPTER 9 Review Comprehension and Critical Thinking SECTION 1 (pp ) 1. a. Describe What is g, and who developed the term? b. Analyze Why is achievement not necessarily a sign of intelligence? c. Support a Position Which theory of intelligence do you think is the most accurate? Use specific examples to explain your answer. SECTION 2 (pp ) 2. a. Recall What is the most common way to determine an intelligence test s reliability? b. Evaluate Why are the Wechsler scales more widely used than the Stanford-Binet test? c. Interpret Other than vocabulary and problemsolving methods, what else might cause intelligence tests to be culturally biased? SECTION 3 (pp ) 3. a. Identify Give one unique characteristic of each of the following individuals: person with moderate retardation person with profound retardation gifted person creative person b. Elaborate What is the relationship between creativity and intelligence? c. Explain Why is the average IQ score always 100? SECTION 4 (pp ) 4. a. Identify Main Ideas List three examples of things that parents can do to help improve the intelligence of their children. b. Identify Cause and Effect What have kinship and adoptee studies revealed about the genetic role in intelligence? c. Evaluate How might attending cultural events help someone who is age 70 or older maintain a high level of intellectual functioning? Reviewing Vocabulary Fill in each blank with the term that correctly completes the sentence. 5. The abilities to learn from experience, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with others is called. 6. with numbers is one of Thurstone s primary mental abilities. 7. shows the intellectual level at which a child is functioning. 8. An is a number that reflects the relationship between a child s mental age and his or her chronological age. 9. The of a test refers to its consistency. 10. A test has if it measures what it is supposed to measure. 11. A develops special skill in a particular talent or discipline in childhood. 12. is the extent to which variations in a trait from person to person can be explained by genetic factors. 13. Mental capacities that allow us to respond quickly to novel situations or problems are called. 14. is the sum of our knowledge about the world. INTERNET ACTIVITY 15. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is a cause of mental retardation. Use the Internet to find out more about FAS. Look for information on why it is never safe for pregnant women to drink, how many children suffer from FAS, and other recent news and statistics. Then make a poster or other display warning about the dangers of drinking alcohol during pregnancy. Psychology in Your Life 16. How many of the nine intelligences proposed by Howard Gardner do you use in this class? List the nine, and describe how you have used each to learn about psychology. For any that you have not used in a significant way, develop a way to incorporate them into the classroom. 268 CHAPTER 9

24 SKILLS ACTIVITY: INTERPRETING GRAPHS Study the bar graph below. Then use the information in the graph to help you answer the questions that follow. SIMILARITY OF IQ SCORES AMONG RELATIVES Connecting Online Visit thinkcentral.com for review and enrichment activities related to this chapter Correlation Identical Twins Fraternal Twins Siblings Source: The Heritability of IQ, Devlin, Daniels, and Roeder, Nature (July 1997) 17. Identify Which of the relatives shown in the graph have the most similar intelligence scores? 18. Make Generalizations What does this graph suggest about the effect heredity has on intelligence? 19. Predict If you added a bar showing the correlation of IQ scores for identical twins raised in separate households, how tall would it be relative to these three bars? Why? WRITING FOR AP PSYCHOLOGY Use your knowledge of intelligence and intelligence testing to answer the question below. Do not simply list facts. Present a clear argument based on your critical analysis of the question, using the appropriate psychological terminology. 20. Describe how psychologists determine whether an intelligence test meets the three criteria listed below. For each criterion, include a brief definition of the term, the standards used to determine whether a test meets the criterion, and why it is important for intelligence tests to possess that quality. reliable valid culturally unbiased Quiz and Review ONLINE QUIZZES Take a practice quiz for each section in this chapter. WEBQUEST Complete a structured Internet activity for this chapter. QUICK LAB Reinforce a key concept with a short lab activity. APPLYING WHAT YOU VE LEARNED Review and apply your knowledge by completing a project-based assessment. Activities eactivities Complete chapter Internet activities for enrichment. INTERACTIVE FEATURE Explore an interactive version of a key feature in this chapter. KEEP IT CURRENT Link to current news and research in psychology. Online Textbook Learn more about key topics in this chapter. INTELLIGENCE 269

25 Careers in Psychology Educational Psychologist Should classrooms consist only of students of the same age? How should a school district revise its curriculum to meet the changing needs of students? How can computers facilitate learning? These are examples of the questions that educational psychologists try to answer. In general, they study how people learn. They perform research both in and out of the classroom geared to aiding the learning process and improving education as a whole. Although educational psychologists typically work for school districts, they are frequently employed by universities, where they engage in research and assist in training teachers and school counselors. Unlike school psychologists, educational psychologists are more involved in theoretical issues that affect learning rather than with individual students. Their research often involves measuring a group s abilities and achievements by administering, and sometimes creating, standardized tests. Educational psychologists then use the results of these tests to help place students in specific programs and to develop curricula in schools. Educational psychologists may focus on several other issues. They may, for example, study the psychological factors that affect a student s test-taking ability or school performance in general. They may research the effects that cultural and gender differences have on learning or the range of instruction methods available to teachers. Educational psychologists may study various learning environments, such as this small all-girls classroom. Work for educational psychologists is not necessarily limited to the academic environment, however. Large corporations and government agencies often hire educational psychologists to devise staff training programs. A bachelor s degree in psychology is the first step in the long, complex process of becoming an educational psychologist. Candidates are urged to gain teaching experience on the elementary, middle school, or high school level before pursuing a doctoral program within a university s education or psychology department. Since the work of educational psychologists involves evaluating and interpreting research data, the training requires proficiency in mathematics, statistics, and computer science. Depending on the graduate program, the final degree earned will be a Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) or a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) Although educational psychology is a difficult profession to break into, it is an attractive career for those who wish to influence the course of the educational system itself. Applying APA Style APA Style thinkcentral.com People in many lines of work read the articles that educational and other psychologists publish. So, clear communication is essential. Correct grammar aids communication. The American Psychological Association (APA) has guidelines for correct grammar. The APA addresses common grammar errors that appear in manuscripts submitted to APA journals. One common error has to do with subject-verb agreement. A verb has to agree in number with the subject of the sentence. For example, in the sentence One of the musicians play tomorrow, the verb play does not agree in number with the singular subject, one. The subjectverb agreement is correct here: One of the musicians plays tomorrow. Through Think Central you can find more information on avoiding the most common grammar errors from the APA style guidelines. Review the APA guidelines. Then write several examples of sentences using incorrect grammar along with corrected sentences. An example is provided for you. Incorrect Grammar The sisters, together with their mother, exercises daily. Correct Grammar The sisters, together with their mother, exercise daily. 270 UNIT 3