Puppy Class Instructors Course

Transcription

1 Puppy Class Instructors Course PAVLOVIAN/CLASSICAL CONDITIONING NOTES These notes are in support of power-point presentation. Pavlovian Conditioning Also known as: Classical Conditioning Event Event Learning Associative Learning Respondent Learning Pavlovian conditioning is all about learning that one event predicts another. For example, when you change your shoes for your joggers, your dog gets excited in anticipation of going for a walk. Text books in support of this presentation: Excel-erated Learning by Pamela J Reid Ph.D. Learning and Behaviour by Paul Chance

2 Definition of Classical Conditioning Behavioural and/or emotional modification through association: linking a conditioned (unnatural) stimulus with an unconditioned (natural) one, causing a conditioned (trained) response. Dr Ivan Pavlov ( ), Russian physician and physiologist, Nobel Prize winner (1904), first demonstrated classical conditioning in Pavlov was a highly interesting man; further personal research is encouraged. Pavlov s dogs The Experiment Excerpt from Excel-erated Learning by Pamela J Reid, Ph.D. (page 20) Pavlov was interested in how reflexes work and he studied the salivary reflex in dogs. Hungry dogs naturally salivate when presented with food. Quite by accident, Pavlov stumbled upon a major discovery. After a period of time in his experiments, Pavlov s dogs began to salivate as soon as they were brought into the experimental apparatus. And they salivated even more profusely when Pavlov s research technician, the person who actually presented the food, walked into the room. This was surprising for Pavlov because it meant that the dogs had come to associate the room and the technician with the experience of food and come to respond in the same way as they would to the food itself. The dogs were showing learned associations. Pavlov then tried to associate various stimuli with the delivery of food: bells, buzzers, tones, music, metronomes, visual patterns, rotating objects, a torch. At first none of these stimuli would cause a dog to salivate but if one was consistently presented for a few seconds prior to the presentation of the food, the stimulus would eventually produce copious salivation by itself. The dog would even try to approach the stimulus, licking his lips. In Pavlov s words: the animal reacts to the signal in the same way as if it were food; no distinction can be observed between the effects produced on the animal by the sounds of the beating metronome and showing it real food (Pavlov, 1927, p22).

3 Unconditioned Stimulus (US) = Food Unconditioned Response (UR) = Salivation Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = Bell Conditioned Response (CR) = Anticipatory salivation Pavlovian Association Usually involuntary and reflexive. Can be deliberately (trained) conditioned or unintentionally conditioned. Often highly resistant to change. Examples of Pavlovian Associations in People Ñ Songs that make you feel soppy because they are associated to a past romantic experience. Ñ Christmas Eve excitement. Ñ Telephone ringing or receiving a text popularity. Ñ The sound of car horns after having experienced a serious car accident. Examples of Pavlovian Associations in Dogs Ñ Picking up the dog s lead. Ñ Fridge door opening. Ñ The owner s arrival home fear reaction where the owner has previously arrived home and displayed displeasure at chewed items. Ñ Sight of the water spray bottle. Ñ Sight of the food treat pouch.

4 Think of associative learning that your dog has experienced. Give two examples: Example 1 Unconditioned Stimulus (US) = Unconditioned Response (UR) = Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = Conditioned Response (CR) = Example 2 Unconditioned Stimulus (US) = Unconditioned Response (UR) = Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = Conditioned Response (CR) = Extinction Example: Pavlov no longer follows the bell with food. The response of anticipatory salivation is eventually extinguished. Extinction of a Pavlovian conditioned response occurs gradually when the CS is repeatedly presented and is not followed by the US. Describe a situation where you could use Pavlovian extinction training in treating problem behaviour in a puppy:

5 In the treatment of fears and phobias, extinction is utilised during the techniques of flooding and desensitisation. Extinction Training Ñ Commonly used for treating fears and phobias in both people and dogs. Ñ A means of eliminating undesirable behaviour. Extinction Bursts After seeming to be making good progress towards extinction of a response, the behaviour suddenly returns at full strength. This is an extinction burst. Extinction bursts are a temporary increase in response before the final decline and extinction. So, don t give up! Spontaneous Recovery Ñ After completing extinction training, responses can recur unexpectedly. Ñ Example: Months after extinction training, Pavlov s dogs hear the bell and start salivating. This is a spontaneous recovery. Ñ Spontaneous recovery is usually short-lived if extinction processes are continued. Desensitisation Ñ Gradually reducing or eliminating a fear response through repeated exposure to the stimulus. Counter-Conditioning

6 Ñ Changing a negative association to a stimulus to a positive association. Ñ Example: change fear response to cap gun to expectancy of food treat. Flooding Ñ Prolonged exposure to a fear-eliciting stimulus with the aim of convincing the dog that there is nothing to be feared. Flooding can be an effective treatment of very mild fears. Utilising flooding for moderate to intense fears involves subjecting the dog to distress and is not considered the appropriate technique. Systematic desensitisation, perhaps combined with counter-conditioning, will be far less distressing to the dog and more likely to achieve long-term success. Flooding often appears to be effective in that the dog s response is weakened or eliminated in the one experience. However, the dog s behaviour is more likely to be a result of exhaustion, learned helplessness or freeze defense. The dog may still be experiencing extreme fear, but has learned to inhibit behaviours of barking, whining, scratching at the door, etc, in order to achieve a desired outcome of escaping the fear-eliciting stimulus. That is, the owner allows the dog to come indoors or otherwise allows the dog to leave the scene; but the dog is still experiencing intense fear, probably further intensified from the original level of fear. That is, sensitisation towards the fear-eliciting stimulus has been increased. Desensitisation or Flooding? Flooding and desensitisation programs can produce further sensitisation. Distance and intensity of stimuli need to be considered along with the process of counterconditioning. Flooding is not generally considered an appropriate technique in many cases because it places the animal under undue amounts of stress. Systematic desensitisation is the preferred treatment. What to Use When?

7 Ñ Ñ Generalisation Ñ The transfer of an association to similar stimuli. Ñ Example: After being conditioned to fear a white rat, Little Albert developed fears to all small white animals including rabbits. Ñ Example: Quarantine detection dogs experience finding a limited range of fruit, such as apples, oranges, bananas and tomatoes, but generalise their experience to all fruits. Little Albert was an experiment conducted by John Watson in the 1920s. He placed a white rat in the playpen of an 11-month-old baby, Albert. The baby was not fearful of the rat. Watson then made a loud noise in association to the arrival of the rat. Little Albert came to fear the rat even in the absence of the loud noise. Furthermore, he generalised the learning to any small white animal, including rabbits. Discrimination Ñ The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli. Ñ Example: Quarantine detection dogs learn to discriminate between fresh fruit and dried fruit. Ñ Example: A dog is attacked by a yellow Labrador and generalises to all medium-sized, yellow dogs, but discriminates medium-sized dark coloured dogs, amongst others. Acquisition Acquisition of Pavlovian Conditioned responses is usually gradual, with a few important exceptions: Fears Phobias Taste Aversions

8 It intuitively makes sense for fears, phobias and taste aversions to require only a single experience to become conditioned. Each could well preserve the life of the animal. More than one experience could render the animal deceased. Timing Relationship Between the CS and the US Standard pairing: after a small number of repetitions, the dog begins to salivate before the end of the tone and after further repetitions; the dog salivates when the tone begins. Early in delay conditioning, the dog has learnt to salivate when the tone first comes on. Later the dog has learnt to wait until the food is imminent before salivating. The arrangement of delay conditioning can produce a learning known as conditioned inhibition. Little or no conditioning occurs during simultaneous conditioning. Example: When the trainer presents the food reward at the same time as saying GOOD, the food and/or movement of the food hand gives the dog the information that the food is coming to his mouth. GOOD is redundant information. When the food is delivered at regular intervals (temporal conditioning), the dog begins to salivate as the interval lapses. Example: dogs that begin to salivate and whine when their regular dinnertime is approaching. Little or no conditioning occurs in Backward Conditioning. Conditioned Reinforcer Conditioned reinforcers are also known as: Secondary Reinforcer Bridging Stimulus Bridge Mark

9 Examples of conditioned reinforcers include: clickers, whistles, verbal such as GOOD or YES It is a secondary reinforcer (CS) to the primary reinforcer (US). It bridges the gap between the behaviour and the arrival of the primary reinforcer. It marks exactly the behaviour that is to be reinforced. Conditioned Reinforcer can be conditioned: Prior to commencing training or During training At the practical session, students will be instructed in both conditioning a clicker prior to commencing training for use during free shaping training. And, a verbal, GOOD, will be conditioned during early obedience training. GOOD, then food The conditioned reinforcer, GOOD, must be the first thing that tells the dog that the food is coming. GOOD marks the behaviour and bridges the gap between the behaviour and the arrival of the food reward. Beware of handler hand movements such as reaching for the food pouch before the bridge. When conditioning on the go, it is imperative that the trainer gives the bridge before moving the hand with the food treat towards the dog. During conditioning prior to training, it is imperative that the trainer gives the bridge before moving the food hand. If the hand is moved, even slightly, before the GOOD or clicker is sounded, the hand movement is likely to over-shadow the GOOD or the clicker. Little or no conditioning will take place. Conditioning a secondary reinforcer for a dog:

10 The optimal timing between presentation of the CS (clicker or GOOD) and the US (food treat) is considered to be: HALF TO ONE SECOND Because it is a tight time frame, many trainers fall into the trap of presenting both the bridge and the primary reinforcement simultaneously. We know that this timing arrangement produces little or no conditioning. The bridge must be the most reliable prediction of the primary reinforcer. The conditioning of a Pavlovian response will only occur when the CS is both predictive and informative of the US. The secondary reinforcer gains its reinforcing power from the association with the primary reinforcer. At full-strength conditioning, the CS is equal to the US in reinforcing value. or said another way: At full-strength conditioning, the secondary reinforcer is equal to the primary reinforcer in reinforcing value. The clicker or whistle do not possess reinforcing power until paired with the primary reinforcer. However, praise may hold intrinsic value to the dog given that it is a highly social animal. Why do we use a conditioned reinforcer for animal training? Could we train an animal without a conditioned reinforcer? A bridge provides immediate feedback to the dog when it maybe difficult to get the food delivered within three seconds of the behaviour. It also more precisely marks the desired behaviour even if undesired behaviours happen immediately afterwards, before you can get the primary reinforcement delivered. Conditioned Punisher: Oops! Oops! tells the dog that the anticipated food reward will now be withdrawn or withheld.

11 Ñ Oops! is not shouted or growled at the dog it is not meant to threaten or intimidate, just communicate. Ñ Ensure that the dog is not able to gain success or reward via another means. Ñ It is conditioned on the go during training, as a consequence of incorrect responses or undesired behaviour. Ñ Double the Information Ñ Many reward-based trainers do not use a conditioned punisher of Ah-Ah or NO, in the belief that it is negative. Even Oops! can offend! Ñ Other trainers consider it to be a means of doubling the information exchange between people and dogs. Using Oops! as outlined above is an example of a conditioned negative punishment. Many trainers do not advocate the use of a conditioned negative punisher on the basis that pet owners are incompetent at timely delivery and tone of voice (not in my experience) and there is a risk of the dog becoming nervous of it.??? I believe it is the responsibility of the trainer to instruct the technique correctly. I find that when dog owners understand the use of this tool, they are less likely to be shouting NO at their dogs in an inconsistent manner. I commonly condition Oops! during the teaching of the sit. Once the dog or puppy is starting to catch on that if he holds the sitting position, more food treats are likely to come his way, I then introduce an increase in difficulty. Instead of moving the food hand towards the dog s mouth to pay and then withdrawing again quickly, I move my hand in slowly so that many dogs and puppies will jump for the food, at which point I say Oops! and withdraw the food treat. It requires very few repetitions for the dog to learn that he can draw the food into his mouth by holding the sitting position, but conversely, he will drive the food away if he jumps for it. Oops! pinpoints his mistake in a similar manner that a bridge pinpoints the desired behaviour.

12 NB Learning will be inhibited if the dog or puppy has been inadvertently reinforced previously for jumping up.