Performance Standards and Reinforcements Effects on Children's Academic Performance: A Test of Social Learning Theory 1

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1 Cgnitive Therapy and Research, VL 4, N. 4, 1980, pp Perfrmance Standards and Reinfrcements Effects n Children's Academic Perfrmance: A Test f Scial Learning Thery 1 Julian Barling 2 University f Witwatersrand Operant cnditining and scial learning thery explanatins have been ffered t explain Kanfer's self-regulatin mdel, and the aim f this study was t place this mdel within a theretical framewrk. A ttal f 108 schlchildren (M age = 9.99 years) were assigned randmly t ne f fur grups in a 2 2 (Perfrmance Standards X Reinfrcement) design, with the levels f the independent variables being self- and externally impsed cntingencies. Persistence and accuracy f verbal and arithmetic tasks cnstituted the dependent variables. The results prvide sme supprt fr scial learning thery explanatins: (a) Any significant self- versus external reinfrcement differences were dependent n prir attributins f the perceived lcus f behavir change; (b) stringent standards were mre imprtant than lenient standards; (c) dtfferences between self-determined and yked stringent standards were a functin f task characteristics; and (d) the effects f self-regulatin were task-specific. Kanfer (1977; Kanfer & Karly, 1972) has prpsed a three-prcess selfregulatin mdel: Peple first self-mnitr the target behavir and evaluate its adequacy (the perfrmance standard prcess). Self-reinfrcement then fllws. The prcess f the mdel has been validated (Kirschenbaum & ~The paper is based n a thesis submitted t the Faculty f Arts f the University f the Witwatersrand in partial fulfillment f the Ph.D. requirements. This research was supprted by the Senate Research Cmmittee f the University f the Witwatersrand and by the Human Sciences Research Cuncil. Prtins f the research were presented at the 13th Annual Cnventin f the Assciatin fr the Advancement f Behavir Therapy, San Francisc, December The authr expresses his appreciatin t Prfessr J. W. Mann, thesis supervisr, fr his guidance and supprt; t Ian M. Evans and Alma Harmn fr invaluable advice during the earlier stages f the thesis; and t Ian M. Evans and G. T. Wilsn fr cnstructive cmments regarding earlier versins f this manuscript. ~Address all crrespndence t Julian Barling, Schl f Psychlgy, University f the Witwatersrand, 1 Jan Smuts Avenue, Jhannesburg 2001, Suth Africa /80/ / Plenum Publishing Crpratin

410 Bailing Karly, 1977). Hwever, bth scial learning and perant cnditining explanatins have been ffered t place this mdel in a theretical framewrk. This study examines these tw explanatins.

2 410 Bailing Karly, 1977). Hwever, bth scial learning and perant cnditining explanatins have been ffered t place this mdel in a theretical framewrk. This study examines these tw explanatins. Fr this purpse, the academic (rather than classrm) behavir f nrmal schl children serves as the criterin variable. Within an perant cnditining paradigm, the agency f reinfrcement (self r external) is f n cnsequence (Catania, 1975), 1976), while increasing imprtance is attached t the "self" within scial learning thery (Bandura, 1978). Nnetheless, research findings are nt unequivcal regarding the superirity f self- r externally determined cntingencies. Althugh sme research indicates that self-determined cntingencies may be mre effective (Brwnell, CUetti, Ersner-Herschfield, Herschfield, & Wilsn, 1977; Latham & Yukl, 1975), mst studies suggest that self- and externally impsed cntingencies are equally effective (cf. Bandura, 1976, 1977). Likewise, the effects f self- and external punishment d nt differ (Grusec & Kuczyinski, 1977). The nly tw studies shwing external cntingencies t be mre effective (Billingsley, 1977; Lvitt & Curtiss, 1969) used single-case designs, and their external validity is limited. Cnsequently, superirity cannt be ascribed t either agency. It is suggested that this may be a functin f the experimental design utilized: Attributin thery suggests that any significant difference between self- and external reinfrcement wuld be dependent n prir attributins f the perceived lcus f behavir change. It fllws that any differences between self- and external reinfrcement might be a functin f the lcus f determinatin f the perfrmance standard, and wuld emerge befre the administratin f the reinfrcement ccurs (Bandura, 1976). The secnd issue is the rle f the relative stringency f the perfrmance standard. With its emphasis n the schedule f reinfrcement, perant explanatins may favr a relatively lenient standard, as this wuld result in greater, mre stable ccurrences f reinfrcement. On the ther hand, scial learning thery emphasizes the individual's cgnitive expectatins fr reward. As well as the stringency f standards, their relevance may be task-specific (cf. Brwnell et al., 1977; Wilbur & Thresen, Nte I); this was als assessed in the present study. The relative imprtance f perfrmance standards and reinfrcement fr subsequent behavir is als imprtant. Operant explanatins stress reinfrcement prcesses, while scial learning thery accentuates perfrmance standards. Thus this study assesses the relative cntributin f these tw prcesses fr behavir change. Finally, previus research investigating the effects f perfrmance standards and/r reinfrcement may be deficient in cncentrating n a single dependent variable (Barling, 1978). The is imprtant since self-regulatry strategies may be differentially effective fr a variety f

Scial Learning Thery 411 tasks (Titchenr, 1977), while children's perceptins f relative task difficulty influences persistence n that task (Masters & Santrck, 1977).

3 Scial Learning Thery 411 tasks (Titchenr, 1977), while children's perceptins f relative task difficulty influences persistence n that task (Masters & Santrck, 1977). Cnsequently, this study assesses the effects f perfrmance standards and reinfrcement n the persistence and accuracy f arithmetic and verbal tasks. This was necessary because different behavirs may be invlved in persistence and accuracy: the frmer reflects mtivatinal, and the latter, skill aspects f behavir. METHOD Subjects Frm grades three thrugh six at the same schl, 108 white children (56 bys, 52 girls; M age = 9.99 years, SD = 1.15; M IQ = 103.4, SD = 14.6) were assigned randmly t ne f fur grups (all N's = 27, with sexes, ages, and IQ clsely cmparable in each grup). All fur testers (ne per grup) were final year undergraduate psychlgy students. Apparatus First, the age-apprpriate Peabdy Picture Vcabulary Test (PPVT) (Dunn, 1965) assessed verbal perfrmance. Bth its reliability and its validity are acceptable. Secnd, the Schlastic Achievement Tests in Arithmetic (SATA) (Schlastic Achievement Test in Arithmetic, Nte 2), cnsisting f separate, grade-apprpriate, standardized, paper-and-pencil tests, assessed arithmetic perfrmance. Each grade-apprpriate test cmprises three sectins, each f 20 multiple-chice items. The SATA is bth reliable and valid. Bth these tests were administered under standard cnditins with three exceptins: (a) Subjects culd answer as many f the items as they wished since a measure f persistence was required. (b) N intermittent encuragement was given since this might bias the results. (c) Subjects were cmmitted t their riginal respnse since immediate feedback regarding its accuracy was given. Tw dependent measures were btained frm each test: (a) a measure f persistence, btained by summing all the respnses regardless f their accuracy, and (b) a measure f accuracy, derived by summing all the items answered crrectly. With bth tests, Frm A was used in the pretest, Frm B in the psttest. Finally, Lunnebrg and Lunnebrg's (1964) 20-item Scial Desirability Scale assessed whether scial desirability cnfunded the stringency f the selfdetermined perfrmance standard.

412 Barling Prcedure During the pretest (cnducted 2 mnths prir t the psttest), all subjects received the fllwing instructins fr bth the arithmetic and verbal tasks: Yur jb is t answer as many

4 412 Barling Prcedure During the pretest (cnducted 2 mnths prir t the psttest), all subjects received the fllwing instructins fr bth the arithmetic and verbal tasks: Yur jb is t answer as many questins as yu want. D yu understand? [Repeat if necessary.] Irrespective f the experimental cnditin t which the subjects were assigned fr psttesting, all tasks were intrduced as fllws. Yur jb is t answer as many questins as yu want. Each time yu get an answer crrect, this light will g n [demnstrate]. When the light ges n, it means that yu have gt the answer crrect. When peple d a jb f wrk they get paid fr what they d. Yu are ging t earn stars which yu can use t buy prizes. In rder t earn stars, nly crrect answers will cunt. At this stage, the fur grups received different experimental manipulatins. Grup 1: Self-Determined Perfrmance Standards and Self- Reinfrcement. Fllwing cmpletin f the arithmetic and verbal tasks fr which subjects had initially self-determined standards, they self-reinfrced n the basis f the number f stars earned. Since children may self-determine leninent standards when given the pprtunity t d s (Bandura & Perlff, 1967), the selectin f stringent standards was prmpted (cf. Brwnell et al., 1977). Subjects in this grup received the same instructins as in Brwnell et al. (1977, p. 445). Grup 2: Self-Determined Perfrmance Standards and External Reinfrcement. These subjects self-determined their standards befre the psttest, and again the self-determinatin f stringent standards was prmpted. Fllwing cmpletin f the testing, reinfrcement was presented t the subjects by the tester. The instructins were again based n thse f Brwnell et al. (1977, p. 445), except that they were nw intrduced as fllws: "I am ging t let YOU decide hw many stars yu want t get fr each right answer. I will then give yu the stars each time yu get the answer crrect. Take a lk at the numbers... " Grup 3: Externally Impsed Perfrmance Standards and Self-ReinfrmceFnent. These subjects received externally impsed standards. This was dne by yking each child t ne f the same sex, and wherever pssible apprximately the same IQ in Grup 1. After cmpleting bth tasks, subjects reinfrced themselves n the basis f the number f stars they had earned. Instructins fr this grup were intrduced as fllws: "Yu will get paid_re_stars fr each crrect asnwer. Therefre, each time yu get an answer crrect, give yurself stars. When we are finished, yu will be able t exchange each star fr a prize. Lets take a lk at the prizes and I will shw yu what I mean... "

5 Scial Learning Thery 413 Grup 4: Externally Impssed Perfrmance Standards and External Reinfrcement. In additin t being yked t a child in Grup 2 f the same sex and apprximately the same IQ, the subjects' reinfrcement was nw administered by the tester. Subjects were tld: "Yu will get paid stars fr each crrect answer. When we are finished I will exchange yur stars fr prizes. Lets take a lk... " T enhance self- versus external reinfrcement differences, reinfrcement was nt nly self- r externally administered. Instead, discussin f what prizes shuld be awarded was made by the subjects in Grups 1 and 3, but by the testers in 2 and 4. In additin, as the subjective perceptin f reward may be mre imprtant than its bjective value (Mre, Mischell & Zeiss, 1976), a chice f reinfrcement (e.g., pencils, crayns, sweets) was available. All prizes varied in value between ne cent and ne dllar. RESULTS Kendall's t cefficient shwed that perfrmance standards were nt related t scial desirability fr either academic task (T(52) =.01). A 2 X 2 (perfrmance standard X reinfrcement) rthgnal MAN- OVA n pretest-psttest change scres (Huck & McClean, 1975) (using the Pillai-Bartlett F apprximatin) shwed that neither perfrmance standard (F(1,105) =.06) nr reinfrcement (F(1,105) =.14) main effects were significant. Hwever, the perfrmance standard X reinfrcement interactin apprached significance (F(1,105) = 2.32, p =.06). Separate univariate ANOVAs assessed this marginal interactin further. Hwever, Cchran's C shwed that verbal persistence did nt Satisfy the hmgeneity f variance assumptin, and Wilsn's (1956) distributin-free ANOVA was used. Only the interactin fr arithmetic persistence (F2,105) = 5.74, p<.02) and accuracy (F(1,105) = 6.82, p<.01) and verbal persistence (~2(1) = 7.31, p <.01) were significant (see Figure 1). Regarding arithmetic persistence and accuracy, Scheff6 tests shwed n differences between selfand external reinfrcement when standards were self-determined, althugh self- and external reinfrcement differed significantly in bth instances when the standards was externally determined. In additin, tw-tailed Mann-Whitney U tests revealed the same pattern fr verbal persistence (see Figure 1). Partial crrelatins cmputed between the relevant standard (self-determined r yked) and the dependent measures, cntrlling fr pretest scres, shw that self-determined standards were significantly mre effective fr bth verbal tasks (see Table I). Hwever, yked standards were

6 414 Barling n- O 17-14, ,I- 11- tu 9- z 14,1 7- t,-- r~ n- i r i- n t,- -3 = -5- External Reinfrcement (ER) -= ~- Self-Reinfrcement (SR) /. ER r,~ ~: r.~ ~ 11- '1" 0 9- n- O 0 3- O_ l- p- W -1- ~-3- ~-5- J e./.,.,..~ ER SR -7 = UJ 17- n- O 15- O r,n 13- lxl r~ 11- Z -I- 9- r,3 uj 7- r.3 Z 5- uj I z:: 1- M,I rl _1 ~ m n. -3- ~ I I! SELF EXTERNAL ~ ER SR S&F EXT&.AL u'j UJ z > g- 7 QC Q t,r -1 gj :> -3, -7-! i! SELF = SELF I EXTERNAL ER EXTERNAL TYPE OF PERFORMANCE STANDARD Fig. 1. Perfrmance standards X reinfrcement interactins fr the fur dependent variables.

7 Scial Learning Thery 415 Table I. Partial Crrelatins Between Perfrmance Standards (Self- and Externally Determined) and Psttest Perfrmance Cntrlling fr Pretest Scres (dr = 25) Perfrmance standards Self- Externally determined determined Z Scre Arithmetic persistence c 2.36 b Arithmetic accuracy c 1.83 a Verbal persistence -.57 c b Verbal accuracy -.51 c a ap <.05. bp <.01. ep <.001. significantly mre effective fr arithmetic persistence and accuracy. In all instances, the significant relatinships were negative. Thus stringent standards were related t enhanced perfrmance. Separate eta-square statistics (Keppel, 1973) assessed the relatinship f perfrmance standards and reinfrcement and the fur dependent variables. In all cases, perfrmance standards were mre highly related t perfrmance than was reinfrcement (arithmetic persistence:.13 versus.04; arithmetic accuracy: 12 versus.05; verbal persistence:. 13 versus.04: verbal accuracy:. 12 versus.00), althugh nne f these relatinships were significant. Finally, a ne-tailed t test fr crrelated samples shwed mre verbal ( ) than arithmetic (40.05%) items were answered crrectly at pretesting (t(107) = 16.36, p<.001). DISCUSSION Significant interactins were yielded n bth the arithmetic and the verbal persistence task. These three rdinal interactins may be explained as fllws: Where the standards were self-determined, it was immaterial whether subsequent reinfrcement was self- r externally impsed. Hwever, if the perfrmance standard was externally impsed, external reinfrcement was significantly mre effective than self-reinfrcement. This suggests the imprtance f the attributin f the lcus f behavir change. These three interactins may explain t sme extent the failure f previus research t yield significant differences between self- and external reinfrcement (e.g., Bandura & Perlff, 1967; Felixbrd & O'Leary, 1973). It is pssible that such studies culd nt detect such interactins since they did nt use a factrial design. On the basis f the present results, thugh, it

416 Barling may be seen that under certain cnditins, significant differences between self- and external reinfrcement may be dependent n the match between the perfrmance standard and reinfrcement.

8 416 Barling may be seen that under certain cnditins, significant differences between self- and external reinfrcement may be dependent n the match between the perfrmance standard and reinfrcement. Anther explanatin fr these interactins may be that self-determined standards themselves are sufficiently salient t render any pssible differences between subsequent self- and external reinfrcement nnsignificant. This wuld accrd with scial learning thery (Bandura, 1977; Kanfer, 1977): Once perfrmance requirements have been chsen, the agency f reinfrcement may be f little cnsequence, as it is the persnal decisin regarding the stringency f the standard that is the salient variable. This emphasizes the cgnitive decisin regarding the perfrmance requirements, rather than the reinfrcement per se (Bandura, 1974, 1977). Nnetheless, a significant interactin was nt yielded fr verbal accuracy. The three variables fr which interactins did emerge invlved persistence t sme extent. Hwever, the children in this study were already perfrming at a relatively high level n the verbal task. Thus perfrmance standards and reinfrcement might nly be effective in increasing verbal persistence and nt accuracy. Thus the self-regulatin mdel may be task-specific, relating primarily t mtivatinal variables. T increase its utility, sme cmpnent that addresses the issue f the skill required t perfrm the task shuld be incrprated. Stringent standards were related t enhanced perfrmance. Hwever, the efficacy f the stringency f self-determined r yked standards was again task-specific (see Table I). This suggests that perfrmance standards are task-specific (cf. Wilbur & Thresen, Nte 1). The verbal task used-,the PPVT--was cnstructed t be as intrinsically interesting as pssible (Dunn, 1965) and was experienced as less difficult than the arithmetic task. Tgether, these tw factrs may accunt fr the task-specificity f these findings. Since the verbal measures were easier and mre interesting, self-determined stringent standards might be expected t be related t perfrmance. Hwever, the relative difficulty and mre bring nature f the arithmetic task may explain the fact that externally determined stringent standards were related t enhanced perfrmance regarding arithmetic persistence and accuracy. These findings are cnsistent with scial learning thery. Bandura (1974) maintains that perant explanatins cannt adequately explain individuals wrking fr infrequent rewards. Within this paradigm this wuld cnstitute an extinctin schedule, and behavir wuld be difficult t establish. Within a scial learning framewrk, n the ther hand, it is the cgnitive expectancies and subjective perceptins f the reward that establishes and maintains behavir. This wuld accunt fr the fact that the children still perfrmed even thugh they were wrking fr infrequent rewards.

9 Scial Learning Thery 417 Finally, perfrmance standards explained mre variance than reinfrcement in all fur dependent variables. The external validity f these results is limited, hwever, as nne f the eta-squared values were significant statistically. Nnetheless, this particular technique has tw advantages (Keppel, 1973): It is useful (a) when any research is in its initial stages and (b) when the assciated F value is nt significant, bth imprtant cnsideratins with the present results. It remains fr further research, hwever, t assess whether the relative imprtance f perfrmance standards can be replicated. REFERENCE NOTES 1. Wilbur, C. W., & Thresen, C. E. Teaching self-cntrl t yuth: It's mre than reinfrce~ ment. Unpublished manuscript, Stanfrd University, Schlastic Achievement Test in Arithmetic. Institute fr Psychmetric Research, Human Sciences Research Cuncil, Pretria, REFERENCES Bandura, A. Behavir thery and mdels f man. American Psychlgist, 1974, 29, Bandura, A. Self-reinfrcement: Theretical and methdlgical cnsideratins. Behavirism, 1976, 4, Bandura, A. Scial learning thery. Englewd Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Bandura, A. The self system in reciprcal determinism. American Psychlgist, 1978, 33, Bandura, A., & Pedff, B. Relative effects f self-mnitred and externally impsed reinfrcement systems. Jurnal f Persnality and Scial Psychlgy, 1967, 7, Barling, J. Children's self-regulatin f academic behavir. Unpublished dctral dissertatin, University f the Witwatersrand, Suth Africa, Billingsley, F. F. The effects f self- and externally impsed schedules f reinfrcement n ral reading perfrmance. Jurnal f Learning Disabilities, 1977, 10, Brwnell, K. D., Clletti, G., Ersner-Herschfield, R., Herschfield, S. M., & Wilsn, G. T. Self-cntrl in children: Stringency and leniency n self-determined and externally impsed perfrmance standards. Behavir Therapy, 1977, 8, Catania, A. C. The myth f self-reinfrcement. Behavirism, 1975, 3, Catania, A. C. Self-reinfrcement revisited. Behavirism, 1976, 4, Dunn, L. M. Peabdy Picture Vcabulary Test: Manual, Minnesta: American Guidance Service, Felixbrd, J. J., & O'Leary, K. D. Effects f reinfrcement n children's academic behavir as a functin f self-determined and exernally impsed cntingencies. Jurnal f Applied Behavir Analysis, 1973, 6, Grusec, J. E., & Kuczyinski, L. Training children t punish themselves and effects n subsequent cmpliance. Child Develpment, 1977, 48, Huck, S. W., & McClean, R. A. Using a repeated measures ANOVA t analyze the data frm a pretest-psttest design: A ptentially cnfusing task. Psychlgical Bulletin, 1975, 82,

418 Bat'ling Kanfer, F. H. Self-regulatin and self-cntrl In H. Zeier (Ed.), The psychlgy f the twentieth century (Vl. 4)). Zurich: Kindler Verlag, 1977. Kanfer, F. H., & Karly, P.

10 418 Bat'ling Kanfer, F. H. Self-regulatin and self-cntrl In H. Zeier (Ed.), The psychlgy f the twentieth century (Vl. 4)). Zurich: Kindler Verlag, Kanfer, F. H., & Karly, P. Self-cntrl: A behaviristic excursin int the lin's den. Behavir Therapy, 1972, 3, Keppel, G. Design and analysis: A researcher's handbk. Englewd Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Kirschenbaum, D. S., & Karly, P. When self-regulatin fails: Tests f sme preliminary hyptheses. Jurnal f Cnsulting and Clinical Psychlgy, 1977, 45, Latham, G. P., & Yukl, G. A. Assigned versus participative gal-setting with educated and uneducated wrkers. Jurnal f Applied Psychlgy, 1975, 60, Lvitt, T. C., & Curtiss, K. A. Academic respnse rate as a functin f teacher-and selfimpsed cntingencies. Jurnal f Applied Behavir Analysis, 1969, 2, Lunnebrg, P. W., & Lunnebrg, C. E. The relatinship f scial desirability t ther test-taking attitudes in children. Jurnal f Clinical Psychlgy, , Masters, J. C., & Santrck, J. W. Studies in the self-regulatin f behavir: Effects f cntingent cgnitive and affective events. Develpmental Psychlgy, 1977, 12, Mre, B., Mischel, W., & Zeiss, A. Cmparative effects il the reward stimulus and its cgnitive representatin in vluntary delay. Jurnal f Persnality and Scilgy, 1976, 34, ~ Titchenr, J. L. Self-mnitring and self-reinfrcement f studying by cllege students. Psychlgical Reprts, 1977, 40, Wilsn, K. V. A distributin-free test f analysis f variance hyptheses. Psychlgical Bulletin, 1956, 53,

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