I. Content Presentation II. Learning Situation III. Observation IV. Reflection
Defining Learning Definition of Behaviorism Three earlier behaviorists and their contributions Ivan Pavlov B.F. Skinner E.L. Thorndike Theories and principles Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Contrasting two major types of conditioning Instructional application
Learning is a long-term change in observable behavior that occurs as a result of experience, it involves mental representations or associations.
Definition of Behaviorism Basic Assumption Two major types of conditioning Behaviorism is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, which occurs through interaction with the environment. Principles of Learning should apply equally to organism. learning process can be studied most abjectly when the focus of study is on stimuli. Internal processes are largely excluded from scientific study. Learning involves a behavior change. Organisms are born as blank slates Learning is largely the result of environmental events. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious. Classical Conditioning Instrumental Conditioning/Operant Conditioning
The father of Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. A Classical Conditioning analysis of how Pavlov s dog learned (Click to watch the video): Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Figure 1 How Pavlov s dog learned Step 1: Bell (NS) No Response Step 2: Bell (NS) Salivate (UCR) Meat (UCS) Step 3: Bell (CS) Salivate (CR)
E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949) Four conditions that maximize Learning: Law of Effort: Responses followed by satisfaction are strengthened and more likely to repeated; responses followed by discomfort are more likely not to be repeated. Law of Recency: The most recent response is likely to govern the recurrence. Law of Exercise: People learning by doing. Stimulus-response associations are strengthened through repetition. Law of Readiness: Learning is dependent upon the learner's readiness to act, which facilitates the strengthening of the bond between stimulus and response.
Proposed the theory Operant conditioning Behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, and the nature of the consequence modifies the organisms tendency to repeat the behavior in the future. Influence on education B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Five Main Obstacles to learning People have a fear of failure The task is not broken down into small enough steps. There is a lack of directions There is also a lack of clarity in the directions Positive reinforcement is lacking Instructional Principles Give the learner immediate feedback Break down the task into small steps Repeat the directions as many times as possible Work from the most simple to the most complex tasks Give positive reinforcement
Definition Basic Principle Common Phenomena Educational Implications Classical conditioning is a process of behavior modification by which a subject comes to respond in a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus that has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that elicits the desired response When stimulus and response occur with each under reinforcing conditions, learning will form. Associative Bias Importance of Contingency Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Generalization Stimulus Discrimination Higher-order Conditioning Sensory Preconditioning Practice is important Associations between certain stimuli are more likely to be make than are associations between others. UCS and the would-be conditional stimulus (CS) need to be presented at approximately the same time. The CR disappear when the CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS The reappearance of conditioned response after it had previously been extinguished. Learners respond to other stimuli in the same way that they respond to CS. The differentiation between two stimulus. A neutral stimulus is paired with a CS1 to produce the same CR as the CS1, and finally becomes CS2 An individual can develop a CR to a stimulus that has never been directly paired with an UCS. Students should encounter academic subject matter in a positive climate and associate it with positive emotions. To break a bad habit, a learner must replace one S-R connection with another one Assessing learning involves looking for behavior changes
Definition Basic Principle Basic Concepts Effects of Antecedent Stimuli and Responses A method of learning that occurs through reinforcement and punishment for a behavior Behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, and the nature of the consequence modifies the organisms tendency to repeat the behavior in the future Baseline Terminal Behavior Superstitious Behavior Shaping Chaining Extinction Reinforcement Schedules Avoidance Learning Cueing Setting events Generalization Stimulus Discrimination Behavioral Momentum The frequency of an operant behavior in the absence of reinforcement. The form and frequency of a desired response at the end of a planned reinforcement program, described in concrete and observable terms. Randomly administered reinforcement tends to reinforce whatever response has occurred immediately beforehand, and an organism will increase that response. A process of reinforcing in which the increasingly accurate approximations of a desired response are reinforced An instructional procedure which involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior. Decline of the response when it is no longer reinforced in the presence of stimulus. A protocol for determining when responses or behaviors will be reinforced, ranging from continuous reinforcement, in which every response is reinforced, and extinction, in which no response is reinforced. The process of learning to stay away from an aversive stimulus. Using discriminative stimuli elicit a specific behavior or reflex, as a result of a learned association Complex environmental conditions, under which certain behaviors are most likely to occur Responding in the same, previously learned way to a similar stimulus. Tendency for a response to happen only when a particular stimulus is present Organisms are more likely to make desired responses if they are already making similar responses
Reinforcement Punishment Positive Negative Positive Negative occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus that is rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. occurs when a behavior is followed by the removal of a stimulus, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. Figure 2. Contrasting Reinforcement and Punishment Positive Reinforcement (Present pleasant stimulus) Negative Reinforcement (Remove aversive stimulus) Reinforcement Increase Response Punishment I (Present aversive stimulus) Punishment II (Remove pleasant stimulus) Punishment Decrease Response
Figure 3. Contrasting Classical Conditioning with Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Same in defining learning: Learning is a relatively permanent change in observable behavior as a result of experience, it is predicated on the conditioning of stimuli and responses. Same common phenomena: Extinction, Spontaneous recovery and stimulus generalization Learning occurs when two stimuli (UCS&CS) are paired Learning occurs when response is followed by reinforcing stimuli Association between stimuli and responses Association requires reinforcement Based on involuntary reflexive behavior Based on voluntary behavior
Create students a positive learning environment associate with pleasant emotions Provide precise observable and measurable learning objectives before conditioning begins Repeat the directions as many times as possible Bread down the task into steps (chaining) Work from simple to complex tasks (shaping) Guide students with cues (visual, verbal, gestural, physical) Reinforce accomplishment with appropriate and immediate feedbacks The repetition of S-R habits can strengthen those habits To break a bad habit, a learner must replace one S-R connection with another one Assessing learning involves looking for behavior changes
Programmed Instruction: Material is learned through a series of discrete frames that include content and questions. If the learner answers a question correctly, they proceed onto a new frame with new content. Those who answer the question incorrectly are directed to remedial material on the subject for more practice. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI): CAI is computerized programmed instruction. CAI eliminates the bulk of paper-based programmed instruction and can automatically redirect students to new frames. Mastery Learning: Material is learned through a series of discrete units. In order to proceed to the next unit, a learner must master the current material. Remedial units are used to help learners who have difficulty with the material. Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA): A person s environment is modified to reinforce desired behaviors and non-reinforcement of undesirable behaviors. Behavior is measured before, after, and throughout the treatment and is compared with the desired terminal behavior. Group ABA often involves the use of token systems.
Learning Situation Learning Situation The trainer started the session by asking What types of clothes are appropriate for your working environment?" The new employees began to began respond. to respond. As each As new each employee new employee provided provided a response, a response, the trainer the gave trainer him/her gave him/her positive positive feedbacks feedbacks such as such Good as Good answer, answer, repeated the answer repeated and the wrote answer it down and wrote on the it board. down on the board. Without providing a rationale to to the the learners learners the thetrainer trainerpurposively arranged the list by male and female clothing (e.g. (e.g. blouse, skirts, skirts, pants, pants, jacket) and accessories (e.g. shoes, ties, ties, belts). belts). The Thetrainer trainerthen thenasked for a description of the items from fromthe thelearns, for forexample examplethe thelength lengthof of the skirt, or type of blouse, or appropriate colors. As each new employee provided a response, the trainer gave him/her positive feedback, repeated the answer and wrote it it down near the related item. The recording and descriptive process repeated on on few fewadditional items. The trainer then asked the the learners to to review review the the list liston onthe the blackboard and asked if if all all items items were were suitable suitable for for their their working working environment. After each learner provided a responsethe thetrainer trainergave him/her positive feedback and asked the thenext nextperson persontotorespond. respond. This This continued until all who wanted to participate did. Explanation Pleasant learning environment Appropriate and immediate feedback (Positive reinforcement) Chaining Chaining Shaping Shaping Explanation Appropriate Appropriate and and immediate immediate feedback feedback (Positive (Positive reinforcement) Appropriate Appropriate and and immediate immediate feedback feedback (Positive (Positive reinforcement)
Learning Situation Keeping the question Are all items listed on the blackboard suitable for your working environment? the learners watched a video about a world famous enterprise in the same field. In the video, all employees were in different professional dress. After watching, the learners were divided in to groups to discuss the previous questions and to share their answers after the discussion At the end of the training, the trainer emphasized company s punishment policy regarding inappropriate dressing. During the following one month, every new employee received an E-mail each week from the training department, which included an evaluation of their weekly dressing and the corresponding suggestions Explanation Guide learners with cues Punishment (Reinforcing stimulus) Appropriate feedbacks Repetition of S-R habits
Trainer s Instruction Activity Trainer s Reinforcement Use of Learning Strategies Activities Observation Results Shaping Yes No Baseline is identified Yes No Chaining Yes No Learning environment is pleasant Yes No Reinforcement Schedule Yes No Breaking down the tasks into steps (chaining) Yes No Working from simple to complex tasks (shaping) Yes No Setting Effects Yes No Guiding learners with cues Yes No Social Reinforcement Yes No Learning objectives are clear and observable Yes No Administer Reinforcement Consistently Yes No Implementation of positive reinforcement Yes No Learning is divided into small units Yes No Implementation negative reinforcement Yes No Reinforcement on response is immediate Yes No Implementation of punishment Yes No Trainer allows new employees to practice Yes No Providing appropriate and immediate feedbacks Yes No Learning Avoidance Yes No Stimulus and responses connections are repeatedly used Yes No Continuous reinforcement for the expected behavior Yes No
How does behaviorism inform the design of instruction? According to behaviorism, people learning by doing. Learning occurs when the response is associated with stimulus, and the repetition of stimulus-response associations can strengthen learning. So, when designing an instruction, the application of stimulus should be well considered. The stimulus can be applied in different ways, like create learners a pleasant and relax learning environment, give learners positive and immediate feedbacks, and provide learners appropriate punishment to decrease unexpected behaviors. Moreover, behavior is determined by it consequences. A too hard instruction or an instruction lack of direction might depress learners, and makes them refuse to learn. So a hard task should be break down into small pieces, learners work from the simple to hard pieces, clear directions should be provided to learners constantly, and interactive learning activities should be designed to engage learning.
What questions do you still have about behaviorism? Behaviorism defines learning as observable change. I would argue that learning is not always observable. Like the new employees in my learning situation. By taking the training program, the new employees learn how to dress professional during the working hours. Well, assuming one of the new employees quit the job and worked for another company that had no professional dressing requirement, and that employee preferred to dress casually during the working hours, then, we would not be able to figure out whether he had learnt how to dress professional in the working environment or not. So my question is, is there any learning behavior that is unobservable? If there is, how do behaviorism define such kind of learning behavior?
How were the classroom activities in this unit reflective of behaviorism? There are so many classroom activities reflect behaviorism. The syllabus which included the overall course introduction, course goals, learning objectives, course expectations, course schedule and some other important course information was provided to students ahead of time. The instructor was nice and the learning environment was pleasant and relax. For example, the first class was initiated by a fun classroom activity, that was, learning how to draw an elephant. And then, the instructor use elephant as an example to teach students how learning happened on animals. Moreover, many instructional strategies were used throughout the classes, like classroom discussion and group discussion. The instructor always gave immediate and positive feedback no matter the answer was right or wrong. In this way, every student was willing to participate in the discussion. Also, considering learning theories were new for most of the students, knowledge were break down into chunks to make them easier to understand. Besides, there were precise and clear assignment rubrics to facilitate students assignment completion.
How have your ideas about learning and instruction changed and why? Before taking this course, I had no idea about the two stimuli (conditional stimulus and unconditional stimulus), neither realized that learning occurred when the two stimuli were paired. I will apply this principle in my future instructional design. Many instructional principles are based on this learning principle. For example, create learner pleasant learning environment, give learner positive and immediate feedback, repeat the directions as many time as possible, use punishment to decrease unexpected behavior, and replace good S-R connection with the bad one to break the bad habit. Besides, shaping and chaining are also useful instructional design principle. Because breaking down the task in to small steps and making students work from simple to complex task can facilitate the whole learning process, and make students feel comfortable and enjoyable.
Ormrod J.E. (2008) Human Learning (5th). Upper Saddle River, NJ:Pearson Education, Inc. Classical Conditioning. Retrieved Sep. 20, 2008 from http://www.answers.com/topic/classical-conditioning Kendra Cherry. Introduction to Operant Conditioning. Retrieved Nov. 10 from http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/introopcond.html Extinction (psychology). Retrieved Sep. 20, 2008 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/extinction_(psychology) Reinforcement. Retrieved Sep. 21, 2008 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/reinforcement Operant Conditioning Terms. Retrieved Sep. 21, 2008 from http://www.honoluluzoo.org/enrichment_operant_cond_terms.htm Learning and Conditioning. Retrieved Sep. 22, 2008 from http://www.sparknotes.com/101/psychology/learning_and_conditioning/operant _conditioning.html From Theory to Practice: Behaviorist Principles of Learning and Instruction. Retrieved Nov. 10 from http://www.otl.wayne.edu/pdf/newsltr/dec02.pdf