Dog Behaviour Science Module 3 The Endocrine System

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1 Dog Behaviour Science Module 3 The Endocrine System

2 Introduction This lesson will take an in depth look at the endocrine system, what does it do, how does it do it, and why does it matter. This module will contain quite a bit of detailed information and terminology. While you are not expected to know many of the terms for life, the terminology highlighted in bold are those that you should pay particular attention to as they are likely to become relevant in future career and conversations. Goals of This Module By the completion of this module you will have gained a superior understanding in how the endocrine system works. This will help you to understand why animals react in different ways due to the hormones helping to direct their behaviour. Studying and revising this module will give you a great foundation understanding when looking at medical disorders involving the endocrine system.

3 CNS and ES Both the endocrine system and the nervous system are constantly communicating with the whole body, sending instructions and taking feedback. The nervous system can send and receive messages in an instant whereas the endocrine system secretes hormones that travel through blood, not neurons, so they move more slowly but their effects last much longer than the nervous system. Homeostasis The goal for both the endocrine system and the nervous system is homeostasis. Fluctuations in the internal and external environment are constant. The body responds by a process called homeostasis, the process of maintaining a relatively stable internal environment. It relates to all areas of the body. Organs, blood, the nervous system and the endocrine system all constantly fight to stay normal and keep any changes as a narrow margin. Endocrine System The endocrine system includes all of the glands of the body and the hormones produced by those glands. The glands are controlled directly by stimulation from the nervous system as well as by chemical receptors in the blood and hormones produced by other glands. By regulating the functions of organs in the body, these glands help to maintain the body s homeostasis. Cellular metabolism, reproduction, sexual development, sugar and mineral homeostasis, heart rate, and digestion are among the many processes regulated by the actions of hormones. Why Does It Matter? The homeostatic environment is vitally important so the endocrine system helps to ensure a homeostatic hormonal environment.

4 Homeostasis is Life A body that is not in a homeostatic state is fighting to get back to homeostasis, which is taxing for the body. When the body is in a fluctuated state for prolonged periods of time it can lead to creating an environment that is incompatible with life. Important to Understand Understanding internal hormone changes is vital in understanding behaviour. An understanding of how hormones are stimulated, and what each hormone does allows us to use this knowledge to manipulate hormone production to change behaviour. Abnormal Hormone Production is Detrimental When animals behave in unwanted manners it can be due to hormonal changes that are having a negative impact on that animal. The ability to understand this in detail will help us to observe changes that may signal abnormal hormone production, and with the help of medical specialists, treating these abnormalities may result in the animal returning to homeostasis.

5 Glands A gland is a group of cells that produce hormones. The area or organ involved may also function in other ways, but the gathering of hormone cells allows it to be categorised as a gland. There are also exocrine glands, autocrine glands and paracrine glands, though we will focus on endocrine glands. Glands work similar to the nervous system as they send information, in the form of hormones, throughout the body. Hormones Hormone means to excite. Hormones are made in a gland, then travel, usually via the blood stream, to another location to communicate with a target cell. Some hormones will affect many cells while other hormones target only specific cells. They bind to target cells then either increase or decrease hormone production. Every cell and function in the body is influenced by hormones. They are involved in so many activities, controlling reproduction, regulating metabolism and energy balance, controlling growth and development, organising the bodies defence system and trying to keep the body balanced and in a homeostasis state at all time.

6 Glands Dogs will have the same glands, in similar locations, to humans. It is important to understand their locations as external injuries to these areas can potentially affect the glands in that area, potentially resulting in behavioural changes. Hypothalamus The hypothalamus can be considered as an endocrine gland as it contains endocrine tissue. We know that it can be found in the centre of the brain. It produces regulatory hormones amongst other functions. It serves as an interchange between CNS and ES. The hypothalamus manipulates hormone release through its relationship with another gland. It will communicate directly with the pituitary gland, which is also found directly beneath the hypothalamus. Pituitary The pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure attached to the underneath of the cerebrum. It is often called the master endocrine gland due to its function in controlling other glands, though in reality the pituitary is under the control of the hypothalamus. Pituitary glands have two lobes, the anterior lobe and the posterior

7 lobe. The hypothalamus secretes antidiuretic hormones and oxytocin, and releases it into the posterior lobe secretes into the blood. The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes many hormones, responsible for releasing adrenocorticotrophin hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, growth hormone, prolactin (milk stimulating) hormone, follicle stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone responsible for sexual hormones. Thyroid The thyroid gland is situated in the neck, just in front of the windpipe or trachea. Produces thyroxine which stimulates metabolism, growth and development. It binds to receptors in most cells in the body. Produces follicle stimulating hormones which help regulate growth and triggers sexual maturity. Unlike thyroxine which targets many cells, hormones produced in the pituitary only targets the ovaries and testis cells. Parathyroid Gland The parathyroid glands are also found in the neck just behind the thyroid glands. The parathyroid produces the hormone parathormone that regulates the amount of calcium in the blood and influences the excretion of phosphates in the urine.

8 Pineal Gland The pineal gland is found deep within the brain. It is sometimes known as the third eye as it responds to light and day length. It produces the hormone melatonin, which influences the development of sexual maturity and the seasonality of breeding and hibernation. Bright light inhibits melatonin secretion Low level of melatonin in bright light makes one feel good and this increases fertility. High level of melatonin in dim light makes an animal tired and depressed and therefore causes low fertility in animals. Adrenal Glands The adrenal glands, located at the top of each kidney, produce hormones that help the body control blood sugar, burn protein and fat, react to stressors like a major illness or injury, and regulate blood pressure. Two of the most important adrenal hormones are cortisol and aldosterone. The adrenal glands also produce adrenaline and small amounts of sex hormones called androgens, among other hormones. It is also involving in reacting to stress. For example, if a dog gets a fright, Sensory organs inform the hypothalamus that the dog is under attack, pituitary gland tells adrenal glands to release stress response hormones, Hypothalamus tells pituitary gland to release ACTH adrenaline producing hormone, stimulates adrenal glands to make adrenaline. This hormone activates sympathetic nervous system, and controls muscles too such as the heart. Pancreas

9 The pancreas is an organ located in the abdomen. It plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells. The pancreas has two main functions: an exocrine function that helps in digestion and an endocrine function that regulates blood sugar. It is the largest gland in the body, regulates balance of glucose in the blood, and Keeps you alive! Pancreas will secrete insulin if you have too much glucose. Insulin instructs the cells to absorb glucose then store it as fat. If the dog s glucose levels too low, pancreas releases glucagon stimulates liver and muscles to break up glycogen and fat to give the dog more energy. Sex Glands Testes and Ovaries are the male and female sex glands respectively. Testes make androgens, including testosterone which helps with sperm making. Ovaries make estrogen and progestin s which stimulate the growth of the uterus lining. Neutering removes sex glands, which removes the production of sex hormones, which can effect reproductive based behaviour.

10 Hormones The body produces hormones, an organic chemical molecule, to carry out many functions. Many hormones are responsible for maintaining body functions and regulation. The hormones that are important to us when studying animal behaviour will be explored further. It s important to remember that hormones can stimulate the performance of behaviours, but equally behaviours can influence the stimulation of hormones. Both systems constantly loop, and feedback to one another. There are three main groups of hormones, amino acid derivatives small molecules, peptide hormones made from bunches of amino acids, and lipid derivatives / steroid hormones. Steroid hormones include cortisol which mediates stress responses, and testosterone which promotes sexual motivation and motivation. Peptide hormones include oxytocin which promotes social bonding, prolactin which is associated with care type behaviours, and vasopressin which affects learning and memory. Amine hormones include epinephrine and norepinephrine which stimulate fight or flight responses. How Hormones Do Their thing! There are mainly 3 categories of hormones, peptide, steroid and amino hormones. To you, it doesn t really matter the classification of hormones, but it is important to have a general oversight of how the hormone travels and carries out activities to result in seen behaviours so that you can picture what is occurring internally. Hormones travel both neurologically and through the blood stream. When transported neurologically they function as part of the nervous system, and when transported in the blood stream they are considered as part of the functioning endocrine system. Non-steroidal hormones will attach to a receptor on the outside of a target cell which wakes up internal proteins, telling that cell to change and cause a target cell response. Steroidal hormones will enter the target cell through the membrane, where they bind to a receptor within the cell, or within the cell nucleus, the hormone then causes a change in gene activity. Behaviour and experiences can affect hormone production in the animal. For example, the sight of another bird in a resident bird s territory may elevate blood testosterone concentrations in resident male birds and they can be observed performing singing or

11 fighting behaviour. Similarly, male rhesus monkeys that lose a fight decrease circulating testosterone concentrations for several days or even weeks afterward. Adrenaline (Epinephrine) It is the fight or flight hormone; it is produced by the adrenal glands after receiving a message from the brain that a stressful situation is happening. Adrenaline, along with norepinephrine, is largely responsible for the immediate reactions we feel when stressed. When a dog gets a fright at a truck, it is the adrenaline rush that helps the body have a surge in energy to have a frenzy. It also activates the sympathetic nervous system. Along with the increase in heart rate, increased alertness, pupil dilation, raising of hairs, sweating and so on, the release of adrenaline instructs the blood supply to heart and skeletal muscles, while restricting blood supply to skin and digestive tract. adrenaline also gives you a surge of energy - - which you might need to run away from a dangerous situation -- and also focuses your attention. Increased exercise can trigger increased adrenaline production. When adrenaline, or epinephrine, is released in the body, the main emotional response triggered is the fear state. Humans and dogs alike can manipulate their behaviour to subconsciously experience releases in adrenaline, and are anecdotally known as adrenaline junkies. Increased frenzy activities in dog s result in increased circulatory levels of adrenaline, and also triggers the sympathetic nervous system response. Along with the release of adrenaline, the reward system within the central nervous system which makes the behaviour rewarding. Norepinephrine Norepinephrine can be released as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system. In the nervous system the norepinephrine helps activate a sympathetic nervous system response, increasing attention and reaction time. In calm day to day functioning norepinephrine is involved in mood regulation and learning.

12 Similar to adrenaline, released from the adrenal glands and also from the brain. The primary role of norepinephrine, like adrenaline, is arousal. It is norepinephrine that is the main neurotransmitter during sympathetic nervous system dominant states. Norepinephrine fundamentally increases blood pressure, pumping blood through the body and to extremities, and causing the heart to work harder as it pumps blood around the body. Depending on the long-term impact of whatever's stressing you out and how you personally handle stress it could take anywhere from half an hour to a couple of days to return to your normal resting state. Many dogs become hyper alert and hypervigilant, causing a vicious circle. Cortisol A steroid hormone, commonly known as the stress hormone, produced by the adrenal glands. It takes a little more time, minutes, rather than seconds, for you to feel the effects of cortisol in the face of stress. First, the sensory neurons have to recognize a threat. It then sends a message to the hypothalamus, which releases corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH then tells the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which tells the adrenal glands to produce cortisol. In survival mode, the optimal amounts of cortisol can be lifesaving. It helps to maintain fluid balance and blood pressure, but nervous dogs, stress monkeys, the body continuously releases cortisol, and chronic elevated levels can lead to serious issues. When cortisol stays at high levels it can suppress the immune system, increase blood pressure and sugar, linked with heart disease, contribute to obesity and more. Dopamine Dopamine can be both an inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitter. It can be considered as a reward transmitter, that makes you feel good after an achievement, or lack of dopamine production occurs if

13 you do not carry out any activities, and don t have any achievements, which can be seen in dogs that do not get to engage in any activities. Dopamine motivates us to take action toward goals, desires, and needs, and gives a surge of reinforcing pleasure when achieving them. Depression in dogs is linked with low levels of dopamine. Studies on rats showed those with low levels of dopamine always opted for an easy option and less food; those with higher levels exerted the effort needed to receive twice the amount of food. Eating and chewing releases dopamine, and it can have a calming influence on the dogs behaviour, so the seeking for food sources can be due to a desire to receive dopamine and the thought of getting the food again releases dopamine. Mental stimulation and enjoyable challenges can all help produce dopamine and help the dog to feel well. Dopamine has a lot to do with dogs carrying out stereotypy behaviours, or puppy destructive behaviours. Serotonin Serotonin can travel as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. It flows when you feel significant or important. It is a feel good, happy hormone. It helps boost a dog s confidence can help neglected dogs. Separation distress and depression appears when serotonin is absent. Similar to yard dogs showing lack of desire to engage. Stress can deplete serotonin levels. Serotonin syndrome occurs if the body produces too much serotonin.

14 Oxytocin Oxytocin creates intimacy, trust, and builds healthy relationships. Great for bonding dogs to others. Both you and your dog will have an increase in oxytocin levels through petting and eye contact. Oxytocin treatment could become something we use in the future to help dogs bond with new people / babies / animals and so on. Oxytocin is released to counteract cortisol production, by bringing down heartrate, lowering blood pressure, regulating breathing and calming the body. Oxytocin can also reduce the level of pain perceived, and is linked with higher levels of antibodies to fight viruses and infections. Endorphins Endorphins are released in response to pain and stress and help to alleviate anxiety and depression. Similar to morphine, it acts as an analgesic and sedative, diminishing our perception of pain. Endorphins are released during stereotypy behaviours, where animals will perform repetitive behaviours, or self-mutilating behaviours. Exercise releases endorphins and can help with depressed dogs. Endorphins can be addictive, resulting in OCD behaviour development. Many unwanted behaviours can be triggered by the desire to receive a hit of endorphins, so it s vital to understand the trigger of unwanted behaviours may be due to internal motivations that you and your clients need to understand. GABA Released as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, The Anti-Anxiety Molecule GABA is an inhibitory molecule, made from glutamine, that slows down the firing of neurons and creates a sense of calmness, by inhibiting action potentials. GABA is released after a stressful event to help the animal recover by creating a break after excitatory neurotransmitters. Dogs that are on edge, stressed or anxious may benefit from additional GABA, while hyperactive dogs may have a deficiency of GABA.

15 Feedback Mechanisms The body is constantly checking in with itself. This is a physiological process. There are two types of feedback loops, positive feedback and negative feedback. Positive feedback in the endocrine system will tell the body to increase hormone production while negative feedback will tell the body to decrease hormone production. Most feedback loops are negative loops where the actual hormone action suppresses further hormone release. For example, the hypothalamus will release a hormone which is released to the pituitary gland, triggering a message sent from pituitary to the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland then releases hormones which travel all throughout the body, looking for target cells to carry out the function it has been designed for. The thyroid hormones will, through dispersion, travel back up to the pituitary and hypothalamus which tells both glands that there are enough of the triggered hormone in the body, which tells the hypothalamus and pituitary to stop production. So when a hormone is produced, it can then tell the glands that hey, we re here, stop telling us to produce more. For every hormone that reaches its target cell, there are thousands that are swept up and removed by the body. Some are removed by the liver which metabolises extra hormones and turn them into bile which is excreted through the digestive system. Other hormones are filtered by the kidney which removes them as waste through urine. Some hormones are broken down by blood, and some are sweated out of the body.

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