Anatomy and Dissection Through Time. Emma Antle & Keeley Hatfield

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1 Anatomy and Dissection Through Time Emma Antle & Keeley Hatfield

2 A History of Anatomical Research and Dissection

3 Overview: The History of Human Anatomy

Overview Prehistoric Times Ancient Egyptians; 3000-250 B.C. Chinese; 1500 B.C. Hippocrates; 460-370 B.C. Aristotle; 384-322 B.C. Herophilus; 330-260 B.

4 Overview Prehistoric Times Ancient Egyptians; B.C. Chinese; 1500 B.C. Hippocrates; B.C. Aristotle; B.C. Herophilus; B.C. & Erasistratus; B.C. Galen; Mondino de Liuzzi; Leonardo Da Vinci;

5 Overview Vesalius; William Harvey; Nicolaes Tulp; Georges Cuvier; Henry Gray; Anatomy Act; th Century Anatomy Gunther von Hagens; 1945-Present Major Dissection Bans

6 Prehistoric Times

7 Ancestors It was known which part of an animal was beneficial for food, clothing or implements. Using this knowledge comparisons were drawn to their own human bodies. Skin: protective covering and warmth Muscles: locomotion and major source of food Skeleton: frame; can be used to make weapons and tools

8 Trepanation Ancient surgical intervention in which a hole is drilled into a human s skull. Completed to Treat intracranial diseases Release pressure due to buildup of blood Release evil spirits from the person

9 Paleopathology Division of science that is concerned with the pathological conditions of ancient human and animal remains. Skeletal remains: indicates age, injuries and disease Fossil teeth: indicates diet and dental conditions

10 Ancient Egyptians; Year B.C.

liver, lungs, stomach and intestines were

11 Paving the Road Ebers and Edwin Smith Papyri: Where physicians transcribed their notes for future knowledge Mummification: Seven step process - the liver, lungs, stomach and intestines were placed in canopic jars and protected by the four sons of Horus

12 Discussion Go to Event Code: 4251 QUESTION: What organ do you think Ancient Egyptians referred to as a waste of space? A) Heart B) Brain C) Appendix D) Spleen

13 Chinese; Year 1500 B.C.

Comparing the Body to the Universe Yin and Yang: A balance of Yin (negative, female energy), Yang (positive, male energy), and the Five Phases (earth, water, metal, fire, wood) - circulation in the

14 Comparing the Body to the Universe Yin and Yang: A balance of Yin (negative, female energy), Yang (positive, male energy), and the Five Phases (earth, water, metal, fire, wood) - circulation in the arms and legs followed this pattern Agriculture: As a country rooted in agriculture they compared the body to a plant - the forest of the body symbolizes the bodily functions - the flowering of the face meant a functioning body, while illness showed wilting, and fading

15 Comparing the Body to the Universe Da Shu (great numbers) Four limbs for the four seasons and directions Five zang (liver, gall bladder, heart, spleen, kidneys) for the five planets Twelve vessels circulating blood and air for the twelve rivers running toward the Central Kingdom Three hundred and sixty-five meridian sites for every day of the year

16 Acupuncture Using the 365 meridian sites Needles were inserted in the skin about this path which qi (life-energy) flows through This allows for the release of bad secretions and tissues of obstructions

17 Hippocrates; Year B.C.

18 Founding Anatomy in Ancient Greece...

19 The Father of Medicine The Hippocratic Ideal How Anatomy Could Help Natural approach and treatment of diseases, highlighting the importance of understanding the patient s health, independence of mind, and the need for harmony between the individual, social and natural environment. Hippocrates believed physicians should study anatomy, especially the spine and the nervous system, as it controls all functions of the body. Healthy mind in a healthy body He was the first who believed that this observation helps recognize the symptoms of each disease. An important claim as cadaver dissection was forbidden in Greece at this time.

20 Humorism Hippocrates disciplined the Humoral Theory during his time Blood Choler/Yellow Bile Phlegm Melancholy/Black Bile

21 Aristotle; Year B.C.

22 Pupil of Plato. Teacher of Alexander the Great.

Aristotle Zoologist who accounted embryology, and wrote several books including: History of Animals, Parts of Animals, Generation of Animals, Motion of Animals, Progression of Animals, Parva

23 Aristotle Zoologist who accounted embryology, and wrote several books including: History of Animals, Parts of Animals, Generation of Animals, Motion of Animals, Progression of Animals, Parva Naturalia, and De Anima Aristotle is often regarded as the founder of comparative anatomy due to his overall comparative approach and incorporation of anatomical and morphological description - his scope is comprehensive, and his methods are rigorous and systematic

24 Aristotle The extent of his knowledge of particular animals is enormous - never overlooking aspects of an animal s life From the feeding habits of torpedo fish to the breeding behavior of catfish - his knowledge of many anatomical features seems possible only from direct observation and dissection Aristotle's description of the unusual placental structure of the smooth dogfish is a great example of this Aristotle's reliance on animal analogies for some human anatomy, especially internal structure, produced mixed results

25 Herophilus and Erasistratus Year B.C B.C.

Alexandrian Physicians Herophilus (Father of Anatomy): Physician known to be the first anatomist - was the first to perform systematic scientific dissection on a human cadaver Erasistratus (Father of

26 Alexandrian Physicians Herophilus (Father of Anatomy): Physician known to be the first anatomist - was the first to perform systematic scientific dissection on a human cadaver Erasistratus (Father of Physiology): Physician and anatomist credited with much of the understanding of the heart s anatomy Their work complemented one another, allowing for the founding of a School of Anatomy in Alexandria

27 Galen; Year

28 Galen: Anatomy and Medicine

His Theory Dominated for 1300 Years Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher Galen s invaluable insights come from treating the wounds of gladiators He was principally influenced by the then-current

29 His Theory Dominated for 1300 Years Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher Galen s invaluable insights come from treating the wounds of gladiators He was principally influenced by the then-current theory of humorism that had been advanced by Hippocrates Many of his anatomical descriptions were wrong because of his reliance on animal dissection, specifically of monkeys and pigs His reports remained uncontested until 1543 when Vesalius published his seminal work

Describes the consequences of spinal cord damage at different levels and dealing with spinal tuberculosis and the injuries of the spine and the

30 Pioneering Spinal Research Based on his observations of animals, Galen pioneered a model for the study of the human spine. His research allowed for an accurate description of the vertebral column and spinal cord - even describing nerves emerging from the spine. Describes the consequences of spinal cord damage at different levels and dealing with spinal tuberculosis and the injuries of the spine and the spinal marrow. Observed loss of sensation and paralysis of all muscles supplied by nerves originating from the spinal cord following complete resection below that level.

31 Understanding Blood Galen had a clear understanding of how important the pulse is and that blood moved around the body. Yet, he did make some mistakes. He thought that: The liver made blood for the veins and the heart made blood for the arteries.

32 Mondino de Liuzzi; Year

Lesson in Anatomy Italian physician, anatomist, and professor of surgery His major work, Anathomia corporis humani, is considered the first example of a modern dissection manual and the first true

33 Lesson in Anatomy Italian physician, anatomist, and professor of surgery His major work, Anathomia corporis humani, is considered the first example of a modern dissection manual and the first true anatomical text. When dissection of a cadaver become a norm in the study of anatomy in the 14th century, Anatomia was used as a handbook to guide the process It was the most widely used anatomical text for 250 years. The book follows a description of organs in the order they appear during the dissection process. Yet, this work is not without errors. For example, he attempts to reconcile the teachings of Galen and Aristotle when he describes the heart, giving an incorrect conclusion.

Dissection Method His dissections were guided by his adherence to a tripartite division of the human body. Theorizing the body was comprised of three distinct containers: 1. 2. 3.

34 Dissection Method His dissections were guided by his adherence to a tripartite division of the human body. Theorizing the body was comprised of three distinct containers: Skull; superior ventricle which enclosed the animal members Thorax; middle ventricle which contained spiritual members such as the heart and lungs Abdomen; inferior ventricle, which contained natural members including the liver and other visceral organs From this he asserted that the abdomen should be dissected first because its organs are the most confused and least noble

35 Leonardo Da Vinci; Year

36 Artistic Form of Anatomical Structures

37 Anatomical Sketches Areas of interest included art, writing, inventing, engineering, mathematics, and more... As a successful artist, he was given permission to dissect human corpses at hospitals in Florence, Milan, and Rome. He quickly became a master of topographic anatomy; 240 detailed drawings and 13,000 words, showing structural relationships of various body organs. Drew the heart and vascular system, the sex organs, various internal organs, and one of the first scientific drawings of a fetus in utero. His work was far ahead of the time, and if it had been published, it would have made major contributions to medical science.

38 Models in Anatomy Made wax casts of ventricles of the brain to study its structure Constructed models of the heart valves Used water and grass seed to watch how liquid would flow through

39 Andreas Vesalius; Year

40 Illustrating the Human Body

Surgery and Anatomy Flemish physician, anatomist and author At the time, this branch of medicine was regarded with little importance Vesalius believed surgery had to be grounded in anatomy He

41 Surgery and Anatomy Flemish physician, anatomist and author At the time, this branch of medicine was regarded with little importance Vesalius believed surgery had to be grounded in anatomy He performed many dissections himself, and would create charts of the blood and nervous system for his students to follow Vesalius also wrote a pamphlet on bloodletting which was supported by his knowledge of the blood system

42 De Humani Corporis Fabrica At age 28, Vesalius published De Humani Corporis Fabrica The book was based mainly on human dissection, and transformed anatomy into being a concept that relies directly on human dissection After this, Vesalius left anatomical research to take up medical practice

43 William Harvey; Year

properties of blood being pumped from the heart to the body.

44 Double Circulatory System Known for discovering the double circulatory system. He was the first person to completely describe the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped from the heart to the body. He understood that for every one circuit of the body blood flows: heart lungs heart rest of body

45 Witches William Harvey was often asked to examine women who were accused of being witches He was asked to examine them for suspicious supernatural marks Upon examination he thought the marks looked normal He saved many lives when he voiced his disagreement

46 Nicolaes Tulp; Year

was appointed Praelector Anatomiae at the Amsterdam Guild of Surgeons Wrote the first pharmacopoeia - a book containing

47 Dr. Nicolaes Tulp Early Life Career as a Physician Dutch surgeon and mayor of Amsterdam Well known for his upstanding moral character and as the subject of the famous painting The Anatomy Lesson Studied medicine In 1628, Tulp was appointed Praelector Anatomiae at the Amsterdam Guild of Surgeons Wrote the first pharmacopoeia - a book containing directions for the identification of compound medicines Gave yearly anatomy lessons performed on victims of public hanging

48 The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp

49 Georges Cuvier; Year

50 Georges Cuvier and the Concept of Extinction

establishing the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology through his

51 Founder of Paleontology Georges-Leopold-Chretien-Frederic-Dagobert (Georges Cuvier) Published a book called Lessons in Comparative Anatomy Instrumental in establishing the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology through his work with fossils Expanded Linnaean taxonomy to include his findings Opposed evolution

52 Henry Gray; Year

53 Textbook of Human Anatomy Published 1858

Future editions became more and more exhaustive in an attempt to make the book completely

54 Henry Gray Gray s Anatomy was first published in 1858 by Henry Gray and aimed to cover the entire human body and all of its systems One of the most influential anatomy textbooks ever published Future editions became more and more exhaustive in an attempt to make the book completely comprehensive Newest edition has trimmed the info to be more concise and applicable to students Dr. Vandyke Carter

55 Anatomy Act 1832

corpse had no legal standing Body snatchers included: medical students themselves con artists who claimed

56 Body Snatching Illicit removal of corpses from graves/morgues Sold to medical schools for anatomy study Prior to the Anatomy Act of 1832 in Britain, the taking of corpses from graves was not considered illegal, as the corpse had no legal standing Body snatchers included: medical students themselves con artists who claimed bodies of the poor amateurs who stumbled upon a fresh grave murderers who produced corpses professional body snatchers

57 Precipitation of the Anatomy Act of 1832

58 Enactment of the Anatomy Act 1832 Official Enactment The combination of body snatchings, murder, and resurrection riots let to the enactment of the Anatomy Act in Britain in 1832 Similar acts came about in North America in subsequent years These acts recognized the need for bodies for medical education/research 1880s Body Embalming This act first allowed medical schools to take unclaimed bodies of the poor and ill Later was amended to require family permission The implementation of body embalming (1880s) allowed medical schools to keep bodies for months, leading to the demise of body snatching

59 20th & 21st Century Anatomy

Important Events of the 20th Century German Anatomical Society - BNA approved 500 anatomical terms used in teaching and publications International Congress of Anatomists (1960)

60 Important Events of the 20th Century German Anatomical Society - BNA approved 500 anatomical terms used in teaching and publications International Congress of Anatomists (1960) - passed a resolution to eliminate proper names (eg. Stensen s Duct) for the use of more descriptive names (eg. Parotid Duct) instead Divisions of anatomy were well-established

61 Divisions of Anatomy Gross Anatomy - oldest division; use of cadaver anatomical structures seen via the naked eye Surface Anatomy - surface features of the body Microscopic Anatomy - structures <0.1mm in size that can be seen with the aid of the microscope (further divided into cytology and histology) Radiological Anatomy - structures seen as radiopaque via x-rays to provide greater contrasts (radiography, CT scan, MRI scan, PET scan, DSR scan)

62 Gross Anatomy Surface Anatomy

63 Microscopic Anatomy Cytology Histology

64 Radiological Anatomy MRI Scan PET Scan

65 Radiological Anatomy CT Scan DSR Scan

66 Dr. Gunther von Hagens; Year 1945-Present

67 Dr. Gunther von Hagens Invention of Plastination Entered medical school in 1965 at the University of Jena In 1975, while working as a resident/lecturer in pathology, von Hagens pioneered an invention that halts the decomposition of the body after death, preserving it for eternity plastination Used reactive polymers Patented the method and dedicated the rest of his life perfecting the technique BODY WORLDS In 1992, von Hagens married Dr. Angelina Whalley who helped him design the BODY WORLDS exhibition A year later he founded the Heidelberg-based institute for Plastination - offers plastinated specimens for educational use and for BODY WORLDS To date, the exhibitions have been viewed by 46 million people in over 119 cities

68 BODY WORLDS - Original Exhibition of Real Human Bodies

69 BODY WORKS at Memorial University Faculty of Medicine

71 Discussion Go to Event Code: 4251 QUESTION: Do you think it is appropriate to plastinate human bodies for display? A) Yes B) No

72 Major Dissection Bans

74 Dissection Bans Argentina, 1987: Dissection was banned from being performed in schools Italy, 1992: A number of Italian laboratory workers campaigned for the law to recognize the legal right of conscientious objection - resulted in Italian Law 413 which permits workers to refuse involvement in animal experimentation Slovakia, 1995: Dissection was banned from all primary/secondary schools India, 1996: The High Court of Delhi bans animal dissections Israel, 1999: Ban on all animal experimentation in schools

75 What do you think Ethical? Unethical? Necessary?

Discussion Go to www.slido.com Event Code: 4251 QUESTION: Do you think animal dissections should be banned?

76 Discussion Go to Event Code: 4251 QUESTION: Do you think animal dissections should be banned? A) Permitted at graduate level but not undergraduate or high school B) Permitted at graduate and undergraduate level but not high school C) Permitted at all levels D) Banned at all levels

77 References

78 References Alexander J Dissection versus prosection in the teach of anatomy. J Med Educ 45: Ghosh SK Human cadaveric dissection: a historical account from ancient Greece to the modern era. Anat Cell Biol 48: Hurren ET Dissecting the Criminal Corpse: Staging Post-Execution Punishment in Early Modern England. Palgrave Macmillan. Staden HV The discovery of the body: human dissection and its cultural contexts in ancient Greece. Yale J Biol Med. 65:

HEALTH CARE PHILOSOPHIES AND ETHICS

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