Affiliation (incl. fte): Department of Communication Science (1.0 fte) Telephone: +31 (0)

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1 Centre for Comparative Social Studies Faculty of Social Sciences, VU University Amsterdam 1. Details of applicant Name, title(s): Dr. Tilo Hartmann Affiliation (incl. fte): Department of Communication Science (1.0 fte) Telephone: +31 (0) t.hartmann@fsw.vu.nl Website: Duration: Application for an additional 0.2 fte research time during one year Discipline: Communication Sciences Research programme: Message characteristics and receiver processes Membership Interfaculty Research Institute: CAMERA Keywords: Video games, virtual violence, moral disengagement, guilt, enjoyment 2. Title of the project Does it hurt to shoot a character? Users experience of violent video games. 3. Track record of the applicant (222 words, excl. references) For about 3 years I now have worked on users experiences of virtual violence. Theoretical explications and conceptualizations dominated my early work on the topic (Hartmann et al., in press; Klimmt et al., 2006; Klimmt et al., in press). In addition, I published theoretical and empirical work in closely related areas, like the fun of video gaming (Vorderer, Hartmann & Klimmt, 2006; Klimmt, Hartmann & Frey, 2007) and the processes of media entertainment (e.g., Hartmann, Stuke & Daschmann, 2008; Vorderer & Hartmann, in press). Also, research on parasocial interactions, that is, people s encounters and interactions with mediated social characters, was and still is among my primary activities (e.g., Hartmann, 2008; Schramm & Hartmann, in press). As a post-doc at the University of Southern California (USC, Los Angeles), I focused on the study of virtual violence. This work resulted in a top-journal publication (Hartmann & Vorderer, in press). After becoming an UD at the VU Communication Sciences department a year ago, I continued my study of virtual violence. I coordinate the Moral Implications Games Group (MIGG; hosted by the Center for Advanced Media Studies, Amsterdam (CAMERA). I also started collaborating with Jan- Willem Prooijen and Tjeert Olthof (VU Faculty of Psychology and Education). In the past year, my track record continued to grow. A Faculty Fellowship would enable me to continue this work. Hartmann, T. (2008). Parasocial Interactions and New Media Characters. In E. A. Konijn, S. Utz, M. Tanis, & S. Barnes (Eds.). Mediated Interpersonal Communication (pp ). Mahwah, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hartmann, T. & Klimmt, C. (2006). Gender and Computer Games: Exploring Females' Dislikes. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(4), article 2. Available: (July 2006). [IF2007: 1.23] Hartmann, T., Klimmt, C. & Vorderer, P. (in press). Medienpsychologische Erforschung von Computerspielen [Research on video games in media psychology]. In M. Bopp, P. C. Krell & S. Wiemer (Eds.), Shooter. Ein Computerspiel-Genre in multidisziplinärer Perspektive. Berlin: suct. Hartmann, T., Stuke, D., & Daschmann, G. (2008). Parasocial relationships with drivers affect suspense in racing sport spectators. Journal of Media Psychology, 20(1), Hartmann, T. & Vorderer, P. (in press). It s okay to shoot a character. Moral disengagement in violent video games. Journal of Communication. [IF2007: 1.41] Faculty Fellowships 2009/2010 1

2 Klimmt, C., Hartmann, T., & Frey, A. (2007). Effectance and control as determinants of video game enjoyment. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 10(6), [IF2006: 1.06] Klimmt, C., Schmid, H., Nosper, A., Hartmann, T. & Vorderer, P. (2006). How players manage moral concerns to make video game violence enjoyable. Communications - the European Journal of Communication Research, 31(3), Klimmt, C., Schmid, H., Nosper, A., Hartmann, T. & Vorderer, P. (in press). Moral management: Dealing with moral concerns to maintain enjoyment of violent video games. In A. Jahn-Sudmann & R. Stockmann (Eds.), Games without frontiers wars without tears. Hampshire, UK: Palgrave. Schramm, H. & Hartmann, T. (in press). The PSI-Process Scales. A new measure to assess the intensity and breadth of parasocial processes. Communications - The European Journal of Communication Research. Vorderer, P. & Hartmann, T. (in press). Entertainment as media effect. In J. Bryant & M.B. Oliver (eds.), Media Effects (3rd edition). New York: Routledge. Vorderer, P., Hartmann, T. & Klimmt, C. (2006). Explaining the enjoyment of playing video games: The role of competition. In D. Marinelli (Eds.), ICEC conference proceedings 2003: Essays on the future of interactive entertainment (pp ). Pittsburgh: Carnegie Mellon University Press. 4. Proposal (962 words) 4a. Problem statement and theoretical background Video gaming is one of today s most popular leisure time activities (Smith, 2006), and violent games are among the top-selling genres. Violent games are currently heatedly debated in society. Many consider playing violent games an immoral action, as they comprise the killing of characters and foster aggression. Players, however, stress that they don't feel like doing something wrong (Ladas, 2002) and instead praise their entertainment experience (Jansz, 2005). Research that tries to connect both sides of the debate is rare; studies about how users perceive virtual violence are virtually non-existent. The proposed research aims to fill this important gap by examining users experience of violent video games. The basic assumption is that violent games are enjoyable for players, because players don t feel guilty if they shoot video game characters. The experience of violent conduct in video games One may wonder why shooting virtual characters may be considered an immoral action at all, because game characters are not living-beings and may not fall into the scope of justice (Opotow, 1990, p. 3). However, past research on media characters has convincingly demonstrated that human perception is easily fooled. [Humans] routinely view nonliving representations as if they were intentional agents (Mar & Macrae, 2006; p. 110). Users routinely suffer with movie characters, and feel empathetic for cartoon figures. Current research by the applicant shows that users also perceive video game characters as social beings, and not as mere objects. According to the model of Moral Management in Violent Video Games (Hartmann & Vorderer, in press; Klimmt et al., 2006, in press) shooting characters that are automatically perceived as social feels wrong, as doing harm to social beings imposes a norm-violation (Haidt, 2001; Tangney et al., 2007). However, users morally disengage while playing violent games to avoid moral concern and to maintain a positive entertainment experience (Bandura, 2002). They frame the situation as unproblematic, by suppressing the automatic social perception of video game characters (cf., dehumanization, Haslam, 2006) or considering the harm-doing against social characters a justified action. Research by the applicant shows, for example, that players feel guilty if they shoot characters for no good reason, but not, if they have a justification (Hartmann & Vorderer, in press). How users actually normatively perceive and frame the violent game situation, however, and how this framing in turn affects guilt or game enjoyment, still remains a black box. The proposed research therefore envisions two experiments to study the effects of users framing of the game situation. Faculty Fellowships 2009/2010 2

3 4b. Approach Both experiments will apply a between-subjects design. Participants will play customized versions of a violent video game, developed with the First-Person-Shooter Creator tm. As dependent measures, users experience of guilt, intensity of moral concern, positive and negative affect, and enjoyment will be assessed (see Hartmann & Vorderer, in press, for standard measures). To improve the guilt-assessment, a behavioral measure of guilt will be applied ( physical cleansing, Zhong, 2006). After playing, subjects will be given the opportunity to wash their hands using an antiseptic wipe; more intense use of the wipe has been found to follow a stronger sense to have been contaminated by something unethically (Zhong, 2006). As additional factors, all studies will measure trait empathy, trait hostility, and video game literacy. A first 2x2-experiment will examine users normative framing of the overall situation. Often, users play privately or together with other peers who may consider violence an okay action. Shooting virtual characters may be considered unproblematic as long as situational norms are not violated. Norms opposing violent conduct could be elicited, for example, by the wrong co-viewers looking over the shoulder (e.g., a concerned mother; see Cushman et al., 2006), or simply by objects in the environment priming antiaggressive concepts (e.g., a religious picture; cf., Aarts & Dijksterhuis, 2003). Accordingly, in study 1, users will either think that they are observed by a violence-opposing person vs. a violence-approving person. In addition, their immediate environment will either include violence-opposing objects (like a religious picture, or an anti-war poster) or violenceapproving objects (like a poster with an aggressive theme). I expect users to only feel guilty if both, the environment and the co-viewer, consistently elicit anti-aggressive norms. A second 2x2-experiment will examine users normative framing of enemy characters in the game. Research on infra-humanization (Leyens et al., 2000) shows that people dehumanize their out-groups. In a virtual conflict, users may automatically dehumanize enemy social characters, because they perceive them as outgroup-members. Shooting those dehumanized characters should violate norms less than shooting in-group members. However, the effect may be moderated by the persons the outgroup consists of. The effect may not apply if the outgroup consists of people being protected by sacred moral principles (Tetlock, 2003); i.e., for example, young children. Study 2 will test the assumption that contemporary violent video games foster moral disengagement, because they frame characters as outgroup-members which are not protected by sacred principles (e.g., adult soldiers). In contrast, users may feel guilty if they shoot in-group members in a video game, and/or people being protected by sacred principles (like children). 4c. Outline of book or articles to be written One research article will be sent to a top-journal of Communication Research. Advancing the research presented in Hartmann and Vorderer (in press), the research article will cover all three experimental studies on moral disengagement in violent video games (working title: Perceptions of virtual violence affects users guilt and enjoyment). The manuscript will first be submitted as a conference paper in Nov2009 to the International Communication Association conference; thereafter, it will be submitted to Media Psychology (a top journal in the field). In addition, the studies will be used to write a NWO Open Competition proposal (title: Virtual violence). A formerly rejected NWO-VENI grant proposal on a related topic will be revised, adapted to the Open Competition scheme, and substantially enhanced by the new insights gained in the above studies. Faculty Fellowships 2009/2010 3

4 5. Time schedule The available time (0.2 fte = 320 hours) will be divided among the activities listed in the table below. Task Hours 1 Developing experiment 1 and hours 2 Running experiment 1 and 2 in MediaLab hours 3 Publication 1 (Media Psychology) hours 4 Revision of NWO Open-Competition Proposal 50 hours TOTAL 320 hours 1 Note that a slightly customized version of a violent game stimulus already applied in a current study will be used in the experimental studies. 2 The data collection will be carried out with the help of student assistants; hours assigned to this task thus take primarily organizational efforts into account. 3 Experiment 1 and 2 will be conducted together in the MediaLab; subjects will be asked to participate in both studies in a row. This practice saves time and has been proven successful in the past. 4 Allocated time budget also includes workload bound to potential revisions of reviewed paper. 6. Scientific relevance (194 words) Violent video games have become a popular entertainment activity and society is in need to understand the way they affect users. Politicians across the globe currently debate whether violent video games are a fun leisure activity or harmful and immoral. To find answers, they actively turn to Communication Researchers. Recent empirical research suggests that players subjective perceptions play a pivotal role in the effects of violent games (e.g., Konijn et al., 2007). A definite evaluation of violent games must therefore take the moderating role of users perceptions into account. Consequently, examinations like the proposed research about how users experience and treat virtual violence promises to fill an important research gap. The proposed research will also contribute to entertainment research, and shed more light on the formation of enjoyment evoked by violent video games (cf., Klimmt, Hartmann & Frey, 2008). Research concentrated so far on the appeal of virtual violence for users, but neglected more aversive connotations like moral concern or guilt. Such feelings, however, may explain why some users stay away from violent games (Hartmann & Klimmt, 2006) or why even enthusiast players occasionally report about diminished entertainment experiences (Klimmt et al., 2006). 7. Expected output and contributions (477 words) 7a. Expected output One empirical research article will be submitted to international ISI-ranked journals with high impact-factors (for the field). Results will also be presented at the highly visible conference of the International Communication Association (ICA). Another output is the contribution to a submission of an Open Competition proposal on the topic to obtain funding from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO, see above). 7b. Contribution to the research programme of the Department and if applicable the Interfaculty Research Institute in which the applicant takes part First, the research program of the Department of Communication Science focuses on two aspects of communication: message characteristics and receiver processes. The proposed research project builds on the notion that studies on the enjoyment of virtual violence need to take into account both the game content (e.g., moral disengagement cues) and the receiver (e.g., individual perceptions). Therefore, the proposed research clearly links to both lines of research addressed by the department. More specifically, the study of violent Faculty Fellowships 2009/2010 4

5 video games is a growing research issue in the department (e.g., Konijn et al., 2007). In addition, entertainment research, especially when linked to new media, is a key activity among department members (e.g., by Peter Vorderer). The project connects virtual violence to entertainment research. Thus, it connects two prominent research areas in the department. Second, the proposed research is closely linked to the newly established Moral Implications of Games Group (MIGG; of the Center for Advanced Media Studies, Amsterdam (CAMERA). MIGG brings together international experts that are interested in the study of morality issues and video games and who share a strong background in this or neighbored domains. The applicant is the coordinator of this research group. Third, the proposed research is clearly theory-driven and problem-oriented and thus matches the scientific approach and research methods recommended by the Centre for Comparative Social Studies (CCSS). In further accordance with the methodological suggestions made by the CCSS, it compares conditions within experimental designs. Although taking a new perspective, the project connects closely to the research conducted on Social Psychology of Media Effects by the CCSS international fellow Brad Bushman (who is also a MIGG member). The proposed project brings together faculty members as well as non-faculty members. The applicant already closely collaborates with Jan-Willem Prooijen and Tjeert Olthof from the VU Faculty of Psychology and Education on the topic. 7c. Added value The content of the proposal has not been submitted elsewhere. To pursue the proposed research, I will need time to apply the new guilt-measure, to develop the experimental treatments that do not exist already, to coordinate data-collection, and certainly to write the articles. However, I currently spend a considerable amount of time already to fulfill my teaching-load (0.6fte). In addition, I am editing a book on media audiences, and fulfill my obligations as an editorial board member and vice-chair of the ECREA Audience and Reception Studies division. Without a faculty fellowship grant, I would clearly lack the time necessary to pursue the addressed experiments and a promising line of research. 8. Replacement of applicant s teaching obligations Replacement of the applicant s teaching obligations is stated in the attached letter by the Head of the Department in Appendix A. Faculty Fellowships 2009/2010 5

6 9. Applicant s CV Scientific Vita 2007, since Aug Assistant Professor (UD) Department of Communication Science, VU - Free University Amsterdam 2007, Jan Jul Post-Doctoral Researcher University of Zurich, Department for Media and Communication Studies (IPMZ, Prof. Dr. Werner Wirth), Switzerland 2006, Jun Dec Post-Doctoral Researcher University of Erfurt, Department for Media and Communication Studies (Prof. Dr. Patrick Rössler) 2006, Jan May 2006, Aug Sep Post-Doctoral Research Associate Annenberg School for Communication (ASC); University of Southern California (USC), Los Angeles, CA, USA Mentor: Prof. Dr. Peter Vorderer; funded by ASC Games Group 2005, Oct Promotion Dr. Phil. (PhD) Summa cum laude (both dissertation and rigorosum) Dissertation thesis: Hartmann, T. (2005). Die Selektion unterhaltsamer Medienangebote am Beispiel von Computerspielen: Struktur und Ursachen [Modeling users' choice of entertaining media: Causes and processes]. Doctoral advisors: Prof. Dr. Peter Vorderer (Anneberg School for Communication, USC, Los Angeles), Prof. Dr. Werner Wirth (Department of Communication Research, University of Zurich) Academic Activities Organizational work Editorial boards Reviewing Editing Vice-chair of the Audience and Reception Studies Division of the European Communication Research and Education Association, ECREA. Editorial board member of international journals Media Psychology and Journal of Communication Reviewing activity for international journals including Media Psychology, Human Communication Research, "Communication, Culture, and Critique", Communication Theory, "Journal of Personality", and "Aggressive Behaviour". Editor of forthcoming book Media Choice: A Theoretical and Empirical Overview (Taylor & Francis) Co-editor of book series Unterhaltungsforschung (Entertainment research); published by Von-Halem Verlag, Cologne (since 2006) Selected recent publications Hartmann, T. (Ed). (in press). Media Choice: A Theoretical and Empirical Overview. New York: Taylor & Francis. Hartmann, T. & Vorderer, P. (in press). It s okay to shoot a character. Moral disengagement in violent video games. Journal of Communication. [IF2007: 1.41] Vorderer, P. & Hartmann, T. (in press). Entertainment as media effect. In J. Bryant & M.B. Oliver (eds.), Media Effects (3rd edition). New York: Routledge Hartmann, T. & Klimmt, C. (2006). Gender and Computer Games: Exploring Females' Dislikes. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(4), article 2. Available: (July 2006). [IF2007: 1.23] Klimmt, C., Hartmann, T., & Frey, A. (2007). Effectance and control as determinants of video game enjoyment. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 10(6), [IF2006: 1.06] Hartmann, T. (2008). Parasocial Interactions and New Media Characters. In E. A. Konijn, S. Utz, M. Tanis, & S. Barnes (Eds.). Mediated Interpersonal Communication (pp ). Mahwah, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Faculty Fellowships 2009/2010 6

7 10. I hereby declare that I have completed this form truthfully: Name: (Tilo Hartmann) Amsterdam, Date: 13 th October 2008 Faculty Fellowships 2009/2010 7

8 11. Bibliography Aarts, H. & Dijjksterhuis, A. (2003). The silence of the library: Environment, situational norm, and social behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 84(1), Bandura, A. (2002). Selective moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Moral Education, 31(2), Cushman, F., Young, L. & Hauser, M. (2003). The Role of Conscious Reasoning and Intuition in Moral Judgment. Psychological Science, 17(12), Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review. 108, Hartmann, T. & Klimmt, C. (2006). Gender and Computer Games: Exploring Females' Dislikes. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(4), article 2. Available: (July 2006). Hartmann, T. & Vorderer, P. (in press). It s okay to shoot a character. Moral disengagement in violent video games. Journal of Communication. [IF2007: 1.41] Haslam, N. (2006). Dehumanization: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(3), Jansz, J. (2005). The emotional appeal of violent video games for adolescent males. Communication Theory, 15(3), Klimmt, C., Hartmann, T., & Frey, A. (2007). Effectance and control as determinants of video game enjoyment. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 10(6), Klimmt, C., Schmid, H., Nosper, A., Hartmann, T. & Vorderer, P. (in press). Moral management: Dealing with moral concerns to maintain enjoyment of violent video games. In A. Jahn-Sudmann & R. Stockmann (Eds.), Games without frontiers wars without tears. Hampshire, UK: Palgrave. Konijn, E. A., Nije Bijvank, M. & Bushman, B. J. (2007). I Wish I Were a Warrior: The Role of Wishful Identification in the Effects of Violent Video Games on Aggression in Adolescent Boys. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), Ladas, M. (2002). Brutale Spiele(r)? Wirkung und Nutzung von Gewalt in Computerspielen [Brutal players? Use and effects of violent video games]. Frankfurt / M.: Peter Lang. Leyens, J. P., Paladino, M. P., Rodriguez, R. T., Vaes, J., Demoulin, S., Rodriguez, A. P., & Gaunt, R. (2000). The emotional side of prejudice: The attribution of secondary emotions to ingroups and outgroups. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, Mar, R. A., & Macrae, C. N. (2006). Triggering the intentional stance. In G. Bock & J. Goode (Ed.). Empathy and Fairness. (pp ). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Opotow, S. (1990). Moral exclusion and injustice: An introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 46 (1), Smith, B. P. (2006). The (Computer) Games People Play. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.). Playing Video Games: Motives, Responses, and Consequences (pp ). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Tangney, J.P., Stuewig, J. & Mashek, D. J. (2007) Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, Tetlock, P. E. (2003). Thinking the unthinkable: Sacred values and taboo cognitions. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, Vorderer, P. & Hartmann, T. (in press). Entertainment as media effect. In J. Bryant & M.B. Oliver (eds.), Media Effects (3rd edition). New York: Routledge. Zhong, C. (2006). Washing Away Your Sins: Threatened Morality and Physical Cleansing. Science, 313, Faculty Fellowships 2009/2010 8