Animal-Assisted Interventions in light of the animals Bjarne O. Braastad

Transcription

1 Animal-Assisted Interventions in light of the animals Bjarne O. Braastad professor in ethology, dr.philos. Dept. of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås,

2 I shall talk about this: What is ethology and why do you need to know? Animal Welfare Act its relevance to AAI What is really animal welfare? How can a human threaten an animal s welfare? How can we secure good animal welfare? welfare indicators and measures taken How can we choose the appropriate species and individual animal? How can we ensure that AAI personnel have adequate competence on animal welfare? 2

3 What is ethology? and why do you need to know?

4 Ethology definition Ethology = the biological study of animal behaviour (behavioural biology) behavioural repertoire (ethogram) physiological and hormonal mechanisms of behaviour development of behaviour from foetus to adult (genes, epigenetic effects and environment) evolutionary function of behaviour evolution of behaviour Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Norwegian University of Life Sciences 4

5 Why do you need to know? Regard to the intervention use an appropriate animal species choose appropriate individuals use the animal correctly in relation to its behaviour, to achieve optimal effects of the intervention prevent behavioural problems Regard to the animal ensure good animal welfare prevent welfare problems 5

6 The Norwegian Animal Welfare Act - of relevance to Animal-Assisted Interventions?

7 Animal Welfare Act - competence 3 General requirements Animals have an intrinsic value which is irrespective of the usable value they may have for man. Animals shall be treated well and be protected from danger of unnecessary stress and strains. 6 Competence and responsibility The animal keeper shall ensure that animals are looked after by appropriately competent personnel. The animal keeper must not transfer animals to people if there is reason to believe that they cannot or will not treat the animal in an appropriate way. 27 Trading of animals, care of others animals Any person who sells or transfers animals to someone else shall provide the person who receives the animal with necessary information regarding conditions which are of relevance to the animal s welfare. 7

8 Animal Welfare Act - environment 22 General conditions for keeping animals Animals can only be kept if they can adapt to the method of keeping in a satisfactory way with regard to animal welfare. 23 Living environment The animal keeper shall ensure that animals are kept in an environment which is consistent with good welfare, and which meets the animals species-specific and individual needs. The environment shall give the animals opportunity to carry out stimulating activities, movement, rest and other natural behaviour. 8

9 Animal Welfare Act - training 26 Training, showing, entertaining and competition Any person who trains animals, shall ensure that the animals: a) are capable of carrying out the activity without being exhausted or injured, b) are not subjected to, or influenced by, substances or treatment which can render the activity unacceptable with regards to animal welfare, (no sedatives etc.) c) are not intentionally subjected to fear, injury or unnecessary stress and strains, (no punishment).. 9

10 What is animal welfare really? - important concepts of animal welfare

11 Animal welfare is based on science and ethics Animal welfare is not just an opinion about what is right or wrong in treatment of animals. Animal welfare is a multi-disciplinary topic, based on several objective sciences (biology, ethology, cognitive science, physiology, veterinary medicine, nutrition, genetics). The background for animal welfare as a topic is found in philosophy and ethics. 11

12 Animal welfare = The five freedoms? Freedom from hunger, thirst and malnutrition Freedom from abnormal cold and heat Freedom from fear and distress Freedom from pain, injury and diseases Freedom to perform normal behaviour (Brambell Committee, 1965, with later amendments) This is often presented as a definition of animal welfare, but that is not correct. Freedom requirements are partly utopian, but: The five freedoms provide important criteria for what good animal welfare is about they have stimulated welfare research for 50 years 12

13 Animal welfare Biological function Biological function; health, behaviour, reproduction 13

14 Animal welfare Natural life Natural life; biotope, behavioural repertoire Biological function; health, behaviour, reproduction 14

15 Animal welfare three dimensions Natural life; biotope, behavioural repertoire Subjective experience; emotions Biological function; health, behaviour, reproduction (Vonne Lund, 2002) 15

16 Animal welfare our definiton Animal welfare is an individual s subjective experience of its mental and physical state as regards its attempt to cope with its environment. (Ethology group, NMBU, 2004; adapted from Donald Broom; confirmed by Ministry of Agriculture, 2009) 16

17 Animal welfare is an individual state Animal welfare cannot be measured on a group level. We can t say: This flock has good welfare, but you can say: All individuals in this flock has good welfare In a group of animals, we must have particular focus on the individuals with the poorest welfare. These may require extra measures. Measures taken include: changes to the environment, care, social grouping or behaviour of humans. 17

18 Concepts of importance to animal welfare Challenges are important for an animal s development. This does not lead to poor, but good welfare, as long as the animal is able to cope with the challenges. Coping = to have control over mental and bodily stability Stress coping requires: predictability (I understand what will happen) controllability (I know how to handle this) (Broom & Johnson, 1993) 18

19 Motivation behavioural needs frustrations Genes X Experience = Fenotype ( Personality ) External stimuli Fenotype Internal stimuli Motivation - goal Behavioural need Behaviour desired Reward Consequences More of the same no OK? yes Satisfaction undesired Punishment lacking Frustration Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Stress Emotional disturbances, anxiety Mental suffering Learnt helplessness Norwegian University of Life Sciences 19

20 Animals needs An animal has a need: If it is in homeostatic unbalance, reel or potential, An internal need, or If it must perform a behaviour due to an environmental situation, An external need. Foto: Agnethe-Irén Sandem 20

21 Behavioural need Behaviours that are necessary to maintain: normal physiological and physical states in the animal (eating, sleeping, grooming, ) a normal psychological state, with its emotional and cognitive aspects. (avoiding negative stimuli, need for social behaviour, intellectual activities, play) (Hughes, 1988) Foto: Kjersti Teig 21

22 Play behaviour 22

23 Emotions Charles Darwin, 1872: The expression of the emotions in man and animals Until then it was deemed unscientific and unacceptable to assign emotions to animals (assign human traits to animals) Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Norwegian University of Life Sciences 23

24 Emotions definition A mental state is an emotion if it is a strong mental experience initiated by exposure to a situation more or less related to motivation, either positively or negatively, and which results in a behaviour oriented towards (resource) or away from (danger) a stimulus. (Cabanac, 2002) Emotions are behavioural counsellors. Emotions: pain, anxiety, fear, grief, anger, frustration, boredom, satisfaction, hope, joy, happiness, positive surprise (Cabanac, 2002) 24

25 Offensive and defensive facial signals in cats Offensive tendency Foto: Audun Braastad Defensive tendency (Leyhausen, 1979) 25

26 How can humans threaten an animal s welfare?

27 Behavioural problems in animals Only when a companion animal is kept in an environment suited for the species, and man and animal live in an equal relationship, it is possible to document positive effects of the animal on man. (Reinhold Bergler, 1991, Univ. i Bonn) Behavioural problems have partly heritable reasons, and are partly due to insufficient competence by the owner about the animal s needs, how it is trained and how it is communicated with. Emotional traits like fear and aggression have high heritabilities and must be incorporated into the breeding of animals. (Bakken & Vangen, 1996; Braastad et al. 1999) 27 Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Norwegian University of Life Sciences

28 Owner as an environmental factor: Negative handling of animals fear and stress 28

29 Ethological consequences of frustration Frustration develops when an individual: has a high motivation for performing a behaviour, but is hindered in its attempt either by lack of a key stimulus or the presence of physical or social barriers. (Broom & Johnson, 1993) expects a reward, but does nt get it (Archer, 1988) Behavioural reactions to frustration: Displacement activity, frequent change in behaviour (restlessness), stereotypies, aggression. 29

30 How to secure good animal welfare - welfare indicators - relevant measures to be taken

31 Welfare of the therapy animal must be taken care of A prerequisite for AAI is to take adequate care of animals needs nutrition, health, exercise etc. Particularly important by AAI for persons with psychiatric disorders or an otherwise poorly functioning patient. Patients/users frequently underestimate requirements for keeping e.g. a dog. A study of hearing dogs: New owners had underestimated the chance for behavioural problems in the dog. A professional must be the main responsible for the animal. 31 Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Norwegian University of Life Sciences

32 Welfare indicators several dimensions Physical health, diseases Injury Growth and reproduction Physiological functioning (e.g. starving, too warm/cold, stress physiology) Behaviour, mental health Most important challenge for animal welfare Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Norwegian University of Life Sciences

33 Behaviour Behavioural change is a sensitive and observable indicator for physiological responses to stress exposure and other threats to animal welfare. Behavioural indicators are important when assessing stress and animal welfare. Behaviour can also indicate positive welfare. 33

34 Negative behavioural indicators Negative emotional signals (e.g. signals of fear, apathy, stereotypies, aggression, restlessness, pain) Fear Ear or tail movements (e.g. flattened ear) Facial expressions Much eye-white is seen (wide-open eyes) Defensive vocalization, warning signals Freezing or flight responses Avoidance, immobility Frustration Much eye-white is seen (wide-open eyes) Restlessness Stereotypies E.g.: chasing tail, box running Aggression Defensive aggression Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Norwegian University of Life Sciences

35 Stereotypies = repeated behaviour without a function strong indication of frustration More common in farm animals (e.g. horses) and zoo animals than in dogs and cats, but is seen here also: E.g.: Dog in a kennel. 35

36 Aggression Aggression can appear if an animal wants to increase the distance to another individual. Strong frustration may also after some time lead to aggression, to try to put force behind the claim. In such cases defensive aggression is often shown, as it is fear-related. 36

37 Stress behavioural responses Displacement activities Redirected behaviours Increased respiration rate, panting without reason Poor appetite Signs of loneliness, separation anxiety These take longer time to develop: Stereotypies Self-injury Reduced ability or motivation for learning Learnt helplessness Apathy 37

38 Behavioural changes in pain Abnormal movements, in particular body parts Stiff posture (doesn t dare to move) Kick abdomen in pain Change in feed intake or drinking Positive response to pain killing medicaments Less social behaviour (withdraws from contact) Changed temperament Injuries due to over-grooming Restlessness 38 Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Norwegian University of Life Sciences

39 Positive handling confident animals 39

40 Joy and positive expectation I Joy is a complex and multi-factorial, positive emotion which acts as a strong motivation for behaviour, and which is of functional significance. (Cabanac, 1992) Looking forward to something = to have positive expectations due to conditioned learning, and to show this by expectation behaviour, like operant responses and increased activity. Explorative behaviour is an indicator of an animal in a positive state. 40

41 Positive behavioural welfare indicators Exploratory behaviour Repeated positive expectations can serve as a stress therapy. Approaching a human the animals shows confidence Broad behavioural repertoire behavioural needs are covered Play is not shown by a stressed animal. Play indicate that other, more fundamental needs are covered. Eating Social contact and social grooming Positive signals: Body posture, tail and ear positions or movements, vocalizations Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals 41 Norwegian University of Life Sciences

42 Environmental factors: Impact on animal welfare The environment of an animal is appropriate if it allows the animal to satisfy its needs (Broom & Fraser 2007) Need to say more? What does this mean in practice? 42

43 Environmental factors: Impact on animal welfare Normal biotope in nature for the species Indoor environment Outdoor environment Therapist and user as environmental factors Food and water Individual experience individual environmental needs: What is the animal used to? Which positive and negative experiences does the animal have with various environmental factors? Which are the consequences of this for the environment we provide to the animal? 43

44 Environmental enrichment how? Relevant occupation: Keeps animals in activity, Satisfies needs for play og exploration, Prevents boredom, (Wemelsfelder, 1993) Prevents that animals cause damage to the furnishings Relevant relaxation: Music? Dreams for Dogs and similar for cats (CDs) Classical music may calm down dogs, chickens and cows Heavy metal make dogs more frequently bark (Wells et al., 2002) Music removes silence and normalize the environment for companion animals 44

45 How can we choose the appropriate species and individual animal for AAI?

46 How to choose animals for AAI? No single type of animal species, breed, individual traits is suited for all patients/users. These questions must be considered: Therapy animal, visiting animal or companion animal? Motivate patients/users for exercise? Provide feeling of security and safety? Stimulate social contact and communication in lonesome people? Can the user be responsible for the animal? Which species does the user prefer? Foto: Janne Helen Lorentzsen Foto: NMBU 46 Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Norwegian University of Life Sciences

47 Selection standards for therapy animals Reliable the behaviour is the same in repeated, similar situations with various users Predictable the behaviour must be as anticipated Controllable the behaviour can be stopped, corrected or redirected Suitable the animal is suited for the purpose and goal of the intervention Able to inspire confidence behaviour and appearance is appealing to the user (Delta Society, USA) 47 Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Norwegian University of Life Sciences

48 Choice of species for AAI - dogs Dogs often considered the ideal therapy animal, constantly present, easy to train, can provide exercise. Various breeds may be suited for different needs in users. 48 Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Norwegian University of Life Sciences

49 Choice of species others 49 Cats less demanding for the owner, cheaper to keep, entertaining, beautiful, as good companion as the dog, can be stress-reducing and tranquillizing with its relaxed nature. Patients unable to move much, or those who do not need constant contact, may benefit from a cat. Some are also afraid of dogs. Horses can be combined with nature experiences. Horse-competent person must be responsible. Farm animals, birds, guinea pigs, rabbits, aquarium fish may be used but only domesticated species are allowed. Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Norwegian University of Life Sciences Foto: Antrozoologisenteret Foto: Alf Ramsfjell Foto: NMBU

50 How can we ensure that AAI personnel have adequate competence on animal behaviour and welfare?

51 Competence in ethology and animal welfare for AAI Health personnel should cooperate with ethologists or animal behaviour counsellors on AAI. Continuing courses at NMBU/SEVU, Introductory course in animal-assisted interventions animalassisted therapy, pedagogy, activity and green care, 5 ECTS Animal-assisted interventions with dogs, 10 ECTS Horse-assisted interventions, 10 ECTS Animal-assisted interventions on farm, 10 ECTS Anthrozoology Centre: AAI with cats New book: «Antrozoologi Samspill mellom dyr og menneske», Berget, Krøger, Thorød (Eds.), Universitetsforlaget, Oslo, Animal-Assisted Interventions - in light of the animals Norwegian University of Life Sciences

52 Good luck with your work on green care and animal-assisted interventions! 52

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