Psychology Your Life

Transcription

1 Sarah Grison Todd Heatherton Michael Gazzaniga Psychology Your Life SECOND EDITION Chapter 11 Health and Well-Being W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

2 11.1 What Affects Our Health? Health psychology A field that integrates research on health and on psychology; it involves the application of psychological principles in promoting health and well-being Well-Being A positive state that includes striving for optimal health and life satisfaction 2

3 Biology, Psychology, and Social Factors Influence Health Biopsychosocial model A model of health that integrates the effects of biological, behavioral, and social factors on health and illness This model is central to understanding the difference between the traditional medical model and the approach taken by health psychologists 3

4 Obesity Has Many Health Consequences (1) 4

5 Obesity Has Many Health Consequences (2) Body mass index (BMI) A ratio of body weight to height, used to measure obesity Fewer than 15 percent of the U.S. population met the criteria for obesity in 1980, but more than 35 percent met the criteria in 2010 According to the World Health Organization, obesity has doubled around the globe since 1980 Extreme obesity is having a BMI over 40 5

6 Obesity Has Many Health Consequences (3) 6

7 Obesity Has Many Health Consequences (4) 7

8 Overeating Obesity Has Many Health Consequences (5) Most individuals who lose weight through dieting eventually regain it or gain back more. Overweight people show more activity in the reward regions of the brain when they look at good-tasting foods than do individuals who are at an optimal weight We eat much more when many good-tasting foods are available than when only one or two types of food are available Body weight is socially contagious 8

9 Obesity Has Many Health Consequences (7) 9

10 Obesity Has Many Health Genetic influence Consequences (9) Researchers found that the BMI of adopted children was strongly related to the BMI of their biological parents and not at all to the BMI of their adoptive parents Studies of twins provide strong evidence of the genetic control of body weight Identical twins tend to have similar body weights whether they are raised together or raised apart 10

11 Obesity Has Many Health Consequences (10) The stigma of obesity Perceiving oneself as overweight is linked to depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem Not all cultures stigmatize obesity In some developing countries, being obese is a sign of being a member of the upper class The upper classes in Western cultures have a clear preference for very thin body types, as exemplified in the fashion industry 11

12 Obesity Has Many Health Restrictive dieting Consequences (12) Most diets fail primarily because of the body s natural defense against weight loss Body weight is regulated around a set point determined mainly by genetic influence (overfed prisoner study) Although it is possible to alter body weight, the body responds to weight loss by slowing metabolism and using less energy Dieting is not a very effective way to lose weight permanently While dieting people often become obsessed with food, like folks with an eating disorder. Exercise is an essential element of any weight control program 12

13 Obesity Has Many Health Disordered eating Consequences (13) Anorexia nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by excessive fear of becoming fat and therefore restricting energy intake to obtain a significantly low body weight Fewer than 1 in 100 people meet the clinical criteria of anorexia nervosa Anorexia is difficult to treat: Patients cling to the belief that they are overweight or not as thin as they would like to be, even when they are severely emaciated 13

14 Obesity Has Many Health Consequences (14) Bulimia nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by dieting, binge eating, and purging Approximately 1 to 2 percent of women in high school and college meet the criteria for bulimia nervosa Those with anorexia nervosa cannot easily hide their self-starvation, but binge eating tends to occur secretly 14

15 Obesity Has Many Health Consequences (15) Binge-eating disorder: An eating disorder characterized by binge eating, which causes significant distress The American Psychiatric Association officially recognized binge eating as a disorder in 2013 Binge-eating disorder is more common among males and ethnic minorities than bulimia 15

16 Sexually Transmitted Infections Can Be Prevented by Practicing Safer Sex (1) Sexually transmitted infections (STIs): Infections that can be, but are not always, transmitted from one person to the next through sexual contact STIs may be caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites. Some are relatively easy to treat or eliminate, while others cannot be cured or eliminated, and may be deadly. 16

17 Sexually Transmitted Infections Can Be Prevented by Practicing Safer Sex (2) STIs Affect the Health of Many People Each year in the United States, there are nearly 20 million new cases of STIs. That means that about 54,000 people each day in are diagnosed with an STI About half of these new infections are in people ranging from 15 to 24 years old Young males and young females contract STIs at about equal rates 17

18 Sexually Transmitted Infections Can Be Prevented by Practicing Safer Sex (5) Practicing Safer Sex Can Reduce the Likelihood of Contacting an STI Safer sex: Sexual behaviors that decrease the likelihood of contracting an STI Statistics reveal that over the course of their lives, 1 in every 2 people will get an STI 18

19 Smoking Is Dangerous to Health (1) Despite overwhelming evidence that smoking cigarettes leads to premature death, millions of people around the globe continue to light up Thirty percent of all smokers worldwide are in China Smoking causes numerous health problems Examples include heart disease, respiratory ailments, and various cancers 19

20 Smoking Is Dangerous to Health (3) In 2014, about 1 in 5 American adults was a current smoker Smoking is blamed for more than 480,000 deaths per year in the United States and decreases the typical smoker s life by more than 12 years Every day, about 3,200 Americans ages 11 to 17 smoke their first cigarette About half of young smokers will likely continue smoking into adulthood, and one-third of those will die from smoking Between 2000 and 2010, regular smoking dropped from approximately 13 percent to 7 percent of adolescents, and the number of adolescents who even try smoking dropped by 33 percent 20

21 Smoking Is Dangerous to Health (5) 21

22 Smoking Is Dangerous to Health (6) Most researchers point to powerful social influences as the leading cause of adolescent smoking Adolescents may also be affected by media images of smokers Some people appear especially susceptible to nicotine addiction, perhaps because of genetics 22

23 Smoking Is Dangerous to Health (8) Electronic Cigarettes Approximately 6 percent of U.S. adults have used electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) E-cigs may hinder attempts to quit, but at least they contain no tobacco (a positive). Between 2011 and 2014, there was a huge increase of e-cigarette use by U.S. high school students More high school students now use e-cigarettes (13.4 percent) than any other tobacco product Adolescents and young adults who used e-cigarettes were much more likely to become smokers than those who did not use them 23

24 Smoking Is Dangerous to Health (10) Quitting Smoking The best tactics for quitting smoking involve several actions at once To assist with the withdrawal symptoms, try using nicotine replacement, such as e-cigarettes with lower doses of nicotine, nicotine patches, or nicotine gum Avoid places where other people smoke Around 90 percent of people who successfully quit do so on their own, by going cold turkey 24

25 Exercise Has Numerous Benefits Positive effects of exercise Exercise is an essential element of any weight control program Research clearly shows the benefits of exercise in almost every aspect of our lives, including reduced symptoms of depression, enhanced memory and improved cognition It is never too late to start exercising and receiving its positive benefits 25

26 How Does Stress Affect Our Health? The biological effects of stress result directly from the ways we think about events in our lives and the way social factors influence us Stress A group of behavioral, mental, and physical processes occurring when events match or exceed the organism s ability to respond in a healthy way Stressor An environmental event or stimulus that threatens an organism 26

27 Stressors Have a Negative Impact Stress responses on Health (2) Physical, behavioral, and psychological responses to stressors Mediating factors can increase or decrease the likelihood that a stressor will elicit a stress response 27

28 Stressors Have a Negative Impact Types of stressors on Health (3) Major life stressors: Large disruptions, especially unpredictable and uncontrollable catastrophic events, that affect central areas of people s lives. Examples include getting married, starting a new job, as well as going into combat Daily hassles: Everyday irritations that cause small disruptions, the effects of which can add up to a large impact on health 28

29 We Have Several Responses to Stress (1) General adaptation syndrome Immune system: The body s mechanism for dealing with invading microorganisms, such as allergens, bacteria, and viruses General adaptation syndrome (GAS): A consistent pattern of physical responses to stress that consists of three stages Alarm Resistance Exhaustion 29

30 We Have Several Responses to Stress (2) 30

31 We Have Several Responses to Stress Immune response More than 300 studies have demonstrated that short-term stress boosts the immune system such as occurs during the end of the fight-or-flight response whereas chronic stress weakens it, leaving the body less able to deal with infection Fight-or-flight response (human males) The physiological preparedness of animals to deal with danger Within seconds or minutes, the fight-or-flight response enables the organism to direct its energy to dealing with the threat 31

32 We Have Several Responses to Stress (6) Tend-and-befriend response Females tendency to respond to stressors by protecting and caring for their offspring and forming social alliances Negative stress responses When people are stressed, they also eat junk food, smoke cigarettes, use drugs, and drink 32

33 What Changes the Impact of stressors? Genetics is one of the many factors that influence heart disease Another critical factor is how we respond to stressors 33

34 Personality Influences How Stress Affects Us (1) Type A and B behavior patterns Type A behavior pattern: Personality traits characterized by competitiveness, achievement orientation, aggressiveness, hostility, restlessness, impatience with others, and an inability to relax Men who exhibited these traits were much more likely to develop heart disease Type B behavior pattern: Personality traits characterized by being noncompetitive, relaxed, easygoing, and accommodating 34

35 Personality Influences How Stress Affects Us (4) Hostile personalities and depression Hot-tempered, hostile people who are frequently angry, cynical, and combative are much more likely to die at an early age from heart disease There is considerable evidence that negative emotional states not viewed as part of a Type A or B personality especially depression also predict heart disease The evidence is clear: Hostile, angry people are at greater risk for serious diseases and earlier death than are people with more optimistic and happier personalities 35

36 Coping Mediates the Effects of Primary appraisals Stressors (1) Part of coping that involves making decisions about whether a stimulus is stressful. We only need to enact coping strategies to certain relevant stimuli. Secondary appraisals The aspect of coping that involves deciding how to manage and respond to a stressful stimulus 36

37 Coping Mediates the Effects Types of coping of Stressors (2) Emotion-focused coping: A type of coping in which people try to prevent an emotional response to a stressor (minimize the problem for example) Problem-focused coping: A type of coping in which people take direct steps to confront or minimize a stressor Downward comparison: You would focus on possible good things the proverbial silver lining in the current situation Another strategy is to give positive meaning to ordinary events 37

38 Coping Mediates the Effects of Stressors (4) Individual differences in coping Some people seem stress resistant because they are so capable of adapting to life changes by viewing events constructively. This trait is called hardiness Hardiness has three components Commitment Challenge Control Some people are more resilient than others and better able to cope in the face of adversity 38

39 Coping Mediates the Effects of Involving the family Stressors (6) Including family members in a treatment plan for a chronically ill person may seem important According to the research, however, such inclusion is often ineffective Family interventions can be beneficial when family members promote the person s feeling of being in control 39

40 11.4 Can a Positive Attitude Keep Us Healthy? Positive psychology The study of the strengths and virtues that allow people and communities to thrive, with a strong focus on understanding well-being According to positive psychologists, happiness has three components Positive emotion and pleasure Engagement in life A meaningful life 40

41 Positive Psychology Emphasizes Well-Being (1) A sense of well-being The Well-Being Index investigates people s sense of well-being across six areas Life evaluation Emotional health Work environment Physical health Healthy behavior Basic access to housing, food, and water 41

42 Positive Psychology Emphasizes Well-Being (3) Health benefits of positivity and well-being Three broad types of diseases Hypertension Diabetes Respiratory tract infections Higher levels of hope are associated with reduced risk of these diseases Higher levels of curiosity are associated with reduced risk of hypertension and diabetes 42

43 Social Support Is Associated With Good Health (1) Social support helps people cope and maintain good health in two basic ways First, people with social support experience less stress overall Second, social support enables people to better cope with stressful events Having a good social support network has been shown to increase people s life span 43

44 Social Support Is Associated With Good Health (2) Marriage can be good for your health Marriage is generally our most intimate and long-lasting supportive relationship, and it has many health advantages Men and women derive approximately equal benefits from marriage Being single leads to greater mortality for both women and men Comparable data are not available for gays or lesbians who are married or in long-term, marriage-like relationships 44

45 Social Support Is Associated With Good Health (3) 45

46 Social Support Is Associated With Good Health (4) Spirituality contributes to well-being Religion and spirituality provide a sense of meaning or purpose in life On a daily basis, religious beliefs can help people achieve and maintain well-being through the social support provided by faith communities Many religions support healthy behaviors 46

47 Several Strategies Can Help Us Stay Healthy (1) Ways to enhance your health and well-being Eat natural foods, and watch portion size Drink alcohol in moderation, if at all Keep active, and don t smoke Practice safe sex Learn to relax, and learn to cope Build a strong support network Consider your spiritual life Try some happiness exercises 47