How can we best use psychology to understand why people think, feel and act as they do?

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2 How can we best use psychology to understand why people think, feel and act as they do?

3 Hindsight Bias = the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Also known as the I knew it all along phenomenon. I knew it all along Out of sight, out of mind Absence makes the heart grow fonder

4 On the evening of an important World Series game, your friend predicts that the Red Sox are going to win by a large margin. In fact, the Red Sox do end up winning the game, causing your friend to boast I predicted it! A letter comes in the mail informing an individual that he was accepted into a college. When he tells his mother she says, I really had a feeling that you were going to get in (even though she had expressed doubts to his father earlier that week). An individual notices that outside, it s beginning to look a little bit gray. He says to himself, I bet that it s going to rain this afternoon. When it actually does rain, the individual tells himself that he was certain that it would when he saw the clouds rolling in earlier. You are nervous to take an exam for which you waited to study until the very last minute. When you take the exam, you feel unsure about the results; however, when your grade comes back a B+, you exclaim to your friends, I was sure that I d aced that exam! and actually believe it in hindsight. On a snowy night, a police officer predicts that it s the perfect condition for a teenaged driver to get into a fender-bender. When the police scanner says that a driver who had just received her license skidded into a mailbox, the officer tells himself that he had been certain such a thing would happen on that night, of all nights.

5 Hindsight Bias is widespread. Due to the fact that psychology is based on behavioural watching, it would be surprising if many of psychology`s findings had not been foreseen in some way. `Good ideas in psychology usually have an oddly familiar quality and the moment we encounter them we feel certain that we once came close to thinking the same thing ourselves and simply failed to write it down.` (Gilbert, Pelham, Krull 2003).

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8 Together with hindsight bias, can lead to overestimate our intuition We tend to think we know more than we do. Hello Teachers! Confidence tends to override correctness.

9 WREAT ETRYN GRABE How many seconds did it take you? Once you know the answer, makes it seem more obvious, therefore you become over confident. Remember Hindsight bias and overconfidence often lead to overestimating our intuition. However, scientific inquiry can help us shift from illusion to reality.

10 Three main components Curious eagerness curiosity Skeptically scrutinize competing ideas prove you are right Open-minded humility before nature don t know everything yet

11 Critical Thinking thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. Smart thinking Four elements Examines assumptions Discerns hidden values Evaluates evidence Assesses conclusions

12 In each of these psychological instances, what has been learned is not what is widely believed however the 4 elements of critical thinking puts them to the test and allows us to look at them as true. Massive losses of brain tissue early in life may have minimal long term effects. Electroconvulsive therapy is often a very effective treatment for severe depression. Brain damage can allow a person to learn new skills, yet be unaware of such learning.

13 If a theory works if the data supports the predictions so much better for that theory. If the predictions fail, the theory will be revised or rejected.

14 Theory is linked with observation in science, however, without science, it s merely a hunch. Theory an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

15 A good theory must produces testible predictions : Hypotheses a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. Hypotheses can be confirmed or refuted. To test and to reject or revise theory, give direction to research,

16 In order to check biases, psychologists must use operational definitions in procedures and concepts. Operational definitions a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. i.e. Human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

17 Operational definitions describe concepts with precise procedures/measures. Ex. Hunger = hours gone without eating Ex. Generosity = money contributed Hunger and Generosity is too broad, what may be generosity to you, is not the same for everyone.

18 By using operational definitions, this should allow for replication of an experiment. Replication repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. Other researchers should be able to re-create your study and get similar results if your findings were true in the first place.

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20 A good theory is useful if it: Effectively organizes a range of self-reports and observations Implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory

21 Case Study an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. Suggest further study Cannot discern general truths Researchers who study individuals in depth are using the case study method. This method is prone to bias. Sometimes a case study is all that can be done.

22 For example, the only way to get information on the effects of child abuse is to find people who have reported abuse and study that person or group of people. Since no two cases are ever exactly alike, there is always some doubt as to the real effects. Therefore they must be done case by case.

23 As a group, let s come up with case study that would be easily applied to the next points.

24 Survey a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. Looks at many cases at once Wording effects ex. not allowed vs forbidden. Random sampling Representative sample

25 One of the easiest forms of data collection is administering a questionnaire. This is very similar to taking a poll. Professionals usually conduct surveys and polls, while amateurs administer questionnaires

26 Population all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. Note: Except for national studies, this does NOT refer to a country s whole population A population is the group from which a sample is taken for the study.

27 Random Sample a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. From a population a random sample is used in a study because you couldn t possibly collect data on everyone in the population. This group must represent the population. Each member must have an equal chance of being included in the study. The sample should not be too small in number. There are many ways to randomly select members. Some examples are drawing names out of a hat, choosing every 5 th name from a list, giving everyone a number and then choosing the members.

28 There are three types of observation naturalistic observation, controlled observation and clinical observation. Naturalistic Observation observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. Describes behavior Does not explain behavior Snapshot everyday life. Naturalistic observation is observational research that takes place in a natural or everyday setting such as a school. Usually there is an effort to minimize the observer s impact by carrying out observations secretly or from a hidden vantage point Observing and recording the behaviour of students in the cafeteria Observing and recording the behaviour of geese in the field Observing and recording the behaviour of children at recess in the playground

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30 Controlled observation occurs when observational research is carried out under carefully arranged conditions. Each subject is exposed to the same situation to see differences between individual reactions. Observing and recording the behaviour of students in the cafeteria when someone is crying or not crying Observing and recording the behaviour of geese in the field when a horn is blaring and is not blaring Observing and recording the behaviour of children at recess in the playground when there is an adult supervisor present and not present

31 Clinical observation consists of observations made by a skilled clinician interacting with a patient or client. The clinician takes notes on the interaction, usually immediately after the interview or meeting with the client.

32 Correlation a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. Correlational Coefficient a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1). How well does A predict B Positive versus negative correlation Strength of the correlation -1.0 to +1.0 There are many times when it s useful to know if two things or variables are related. The research technique that is used is the correlational study.

33 Once data is collected a scatterplot is used to graph and interpret data in the primitive stage. Scatter plot a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

34 In scatterplots, each dot represents the scattered values of 2 variables. A correlation is said to be positive if 2 sets of scores, tend to rise and fall together. (ex. Height and weight) A correlation is said to be negative is 2 sets of scores relate inversely, one set going up, as another goes down. (ex. Exercise and weight) A weak correlation has a co-efficient of zero.

35 1) The more young children watch TV, the less they read. 2) The more sexual content teens see on TV, the more likely they are to have sex. 3) The longer children are breast-fed, the greater their later academic achievement. The more often adolescents eat breakfast, the lower their body mass.

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45 Correlation helps predict Does not imply cause and effect Need more analysis for that A correlation coefficient which can range from -1.0 to +1.0, reveals the extent to which 2 things relate. Correlation DOES NOT PROVE Causation!

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50 Illusory Correlations the perception of a relationship where none exists. Perceived non-existent correlation A random coincidence

51 When we believe there is a relationship between 2 things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief. Helps to explain superstitious behaviour. Ex. Sugar makes children hyperactive getting chilled gives you a cold weather = arthritis pain. y/common_superstitions/

52 Comes from our need to make sense out of the world Which is more likely? Coin flip HHHTTT, HTTHTH, HHHHHH

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54 A way to isolate cause and effect from each other. Experiment a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

55 Control of factors Manipulation of the factor(s) of interest Hold constant ( controlling ) factors Breast Milk Study pg 34

56 A way to hold constant certain factors, eliminate alternative explanations and support conclusions. Eliminates alternative explanations Different from random sample Random Assignment assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

57 Participants in studies must to assigned randomly and blind (uninformed). Ex. One group gets real drug, one gets the placebo. Single Blind Research assistants know which group is getting which. Double Blind Both the participants and the research assistants do not know who is getting what.

58 Double Blind Procedure an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. Researchers can check the treatment s actual effects apart from participants belief in its healing powers or the scientists enthusiasm for its potential. Coca Cola Study

59 Placebo Effect experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. More expensive the drug is, the more people believe it is working Brand name versus No Name

60 1) Experimental Group in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. Receives the treatment (independent variable) 2) Control Group in an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of treatment. Does not receive the treatment

61 These can be very difficult to keep straight. Independent Variable the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. Dependent Variable the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. What is being measured?

62 The individual differences among participants are the largest category of a special kind of variable known as confounding variables. These are variables other than the IV that could produce a change in the DV. Confounding variables must be controlled for. You must eliminate as many of these as possible before you get your sample so that your results are accurate. Confounding Variable a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment. Effect of random assignment on confounding variables

63 On page 35 of your text, it runs through a Viagra Study, using the 3 variables, if you need more clarification.

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69 For each hypothesis, consider how you could design a study that would test it, then in the experiment that s given, identify the independent and dependent variables.

70 Experiments Hypothesis: Taking tests in hot rooms decreases test scores. Students are randomly assigned to take a test in either a hot room or a comfortable room. Test scores will be compared to see if hot rooms negatively affect test-taking. What is the independent variable? A. Students B. Room temperature C. Test scores D. Tests What is the dependent variable? A. Students B. Hot room C. Comfortable room D. Test scores

71 Why might you think that the participants in this study was the independent or dependent variable?

72 Experiments Hypothesis: Newborns gaze longer at a drawing of a face-like image than at a bull s-eye pattern. Newborns are shown, in random order, the stimuli: A face-like image, a bull s-eye pattern, and a blank screen. Each newborn is timed to see how long they look at each. What is the independent variable? A. Random order B. Length of gaze C. The stimuli D. Newborns What is the dependent variable? A. Newborns B. Length of gaze C. Facelike image and bull s-eye pattern D. All of the stimuli

73 Why do the images need to be presented in a random order?

74 Experiments Hypothesis: Without their sense of smell, it may be difficult to distinguish a cold cup of coffee from a glass of red wine. Participants are blindfolded and their noses are pinched closed. They are then presented with a cold cup of coffee, a cup of red wine, and a cup of water, in random order. Each is presented 3 times. Participants are asked to sip each one, guessing the contents of the cup. Next the participants, still blindfolded but with unpinched noses, taste the contents of each cup again, again guessing each cup s contents. What is the independent variable? A. Being able to smell or not B. Participants C. The contents of each cup D. Identifying the contents of each cup What is the dependent variable? A. Being blindfolded B. Participants C. The contents of each cup D. Identifying the contents of each cup

75 Why were the participants blindfolded?

76 Experiments Hypothesis: Televised violence leads to aggressive behavior by teenagers who watch the programs. Teenagers ages are randomly assigned to watch either a violent movie or an equally engaging but non-violent movie. Afterwards while playing a game, they are given an opportunity to punish their competitor by blasting a loud sound in their competitor s headphones. The teenage participants get to choose how long to administer the sound. What is the independent variable? A. The competitor B. Type of movie C. Length of the loud sound D. Teenage participants What is the dependent variable? A. Length of the loud sound B. Violent movie C. Teenage participants D. Game competitor

77 Why did the control group movie need to be equally engaging?

78 Experiments Hypothesis: When people learn something while intoxicated, they recall it best when they are again intoxicated. Participants are given enough alcohol to become intoxicated, and then they watch a 30-minute instructional video. The next day the participants are randomly divided into two groups. One group is again given the same amount of alcohol as they had the previous day. The other group is given a glass of water with a little vodka around the rim. Both groups are given a test on the material covered in the video. What is the independent variable? A. Alcohol B. Intoxicated again or not C. Test scores D. Instructional video What is the dependent variable? A. Being intoxicated B. Vodka on the rim of the glass C. Participants D. Test scores

79 What was the placebo effect here and why is it important?

80 Comparing Research Methods

81 Comparing Research Methods

82 Comparing Research Methods

83 In order to make data universally understood by all psychologists, the following standards need to be implemented: Mean Median Mode

84 Mean the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. arithmetic average Median the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it. Middle score Mode the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. Occurs the most

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86 Range the difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution. Standard Deviation a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

87 Normal Curve a symmetrical, bellshaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scored fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

88 Normal Curve (bell shaped)

89 Representative samples are better than biased samples Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable More cases are better than fewer

90 Statistical Significance a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. The averages are reliable The differences between averages is relatively large Does imply the importance of the results STATS IS DONE WOOOOO!!!

91 Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? The principles, not the research findings, help explain behavior

92 Does behavior depend on one s culture and gender? Culture the enduring behavior, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. Influence of culture on behavior Gender More similarities than differences

93 Ethics in animal research Reasons for using animals in research Safeguards for animal use

94 Clear scientific purpose The research must answer a specific, important scientific question. Animals are chosen because they are best-suited. Humane treatment The animals must be cared for and housed in a humane way. Legal possession of animals The animals used in research must be purchased from legal companies. If wild animals are used they must be trapped in a humane manner. Minimum suffering - The experimental procedures must be designed to use the least amount of suffering possible.

95 Informed Consent an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate Protect from harm and discomfort Maintain confidentiality

96 Debriefing the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

97 Informed consent Participants must know that they are involved in research and give their consent. It is at this time that participants need to be told about any potential risks. Coercion - Participation must be voluntary. No one can be forced to be in a study. Participants have the right to refuse to participate or to withdraw at any time from the study.

98 Anonymity/Confidentiality Participants privacy must be protected. The researcher must never reveal their identities. Risk Participants can t be placed in any significant mental or physical risk. Debriefing Participants must be told the purpose of the study and provided with ways to contact the researchers about the study results.

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101 The following are descriptions of actual studies. Do you think they were ethical? Why or why not? APA Ethical Guidelines:

102 Men using a public restroom are observed surreptitiously by a researcher hidden in a toilet stall, who records the time they take to urinate. Was this study ethical? A B C D E Definitely Yes Yes Not Sure No Definitely Not Middlemist, R.D., Knowles, E. S. &Matter, C. F Personal space invasions in the lavatory: Suggestive evidence for arousal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33,

103 A researcher pretends to be a lookout for gay men having sex in a public restroom. On the basis of the men s car license plates, the researcher tracks down the participants through the Department of Motor Vehicles. Then, under the guise of another study, he interviews them in their homes. Was this study ethical? A B C D E Definitely Yes Yes Not Sure No Definitely Not Humphreys, L. (1975). Tearoom trade: Impersonal sex in public places. New York: Aldine.

104 Researchers covertly film people who strip the parts from seemingly abandoned cars. Was this study ethical? A B C D E Definitely Yes Yes Not Sure No Definitely Not Zimbardo, P. G. (1970). The human choice: Individuation, reason, and order versus deindividuation, impulse, and chaos. In W. J. Arnold & D. Levine (Eds.), 1969 Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (pp ). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

105 Participants waiting for an experiment are videotaped without their prior knowledge or consent. However, they are given the option of erasing the tapes if they do not want their tapes to be used for research purposes. Was this study an ethical? A B C D E Definitely Yes Yes Not Sure No Definitely Not Ickes, W. (1982). A basic paradigm for the study of personality, roles, and social behavior. In W. Ickes and E.S. Knowles (Eds.), Personality, roles, and social behavior (pp ). New York: Springer-Verlag.

106 Researchers stage a shoplifting episode in a drugstore, and shoppers reactions are observed. Was this study ethical? A B C D E Definitely Yes Yes Not Sure No Definitely Not Gelfand, D. M., Hartmann, D. P., Walder, P., & Page, B. (1973). Who reports shoplifters? A field-experimental study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25,

107 Researchers hide under dormitory beds and eavesdrop on students conversations. Was this study ethical? A B C D E Definitely Yes Yes Not Sure No Definitely Not Henle. M., & Hubbell, MR (1938)." Egocentricity in adult conversation. Journal of Social Psychology, 9,

108 Researchers embarrass participants by asking them to sing Feelings. Was this study ethical? A B C D E Definitely Yes Yes Not Sure No Definitely Not Leary, M. R., Landel, J. L., & Patton, K. M. (1996). The motivated expression of embarrassment following a self-presentational predicament. Journal of Personality, 64,

109 Researchers approach members of the opposite sex on a university campus and ask them to have sex. Was this study ethical? A B C D E Definitely Yes Yes Not Sure No Definitely Not Clark, R. D., III & Hatfield, E. (1989). Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 2,