Fear of Failure: What's Culture Got To Do With It?

Transcription

1 See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: Fear of Failure: What's Culture Got To Do With It? Chapter January 2012 CITATIONS 0 READS 46 2 authors: Heather J. Peters University of Minnesota Morris 7 PUBLICATIONS 51 CITATIONS Kevin A. Stefanek Region 4 South Adult Mental Health Consortium 4 PUBLICATIONS 6 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately. Available from: Heather J. Peters Retrieved on: 18 September 2016

2 SPORTS AND ATHLETICS PREPARATION, PERFORMANCE, AND PsYcHoLoGY ATHLETIC INSIGHT S WRITINGs IN SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

3 SPORTS AND ATHLETICS PREPARATION, PERFoRMANCE, AND PSYCHOLOGY Additional books in this series can be found on Nova s website under the Series tab. Additional e-books in this series can be found on Nova s website under the e-book tab. PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH PRoGREss Additional books in this series can be found on Nova s website under the Series tab. Additional e-books in this series can be found on Nova s website under the e-book tab.

4 SPoRTS AND ATHLETICS PREPARATION, PERFORMANCE, AND PsYCHoLoGY ATHLETIC INSIGHT S WRITINGs IN SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ROBERT ScHINKE EDITOR NiWA Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

5 Copyright 2012 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Afl rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone ; Fax Web Site: NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not he liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Athletic insight s writings in sport psychology / Robert Schinke, editor. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN (hardcover) 1. Sports--Psychological aspects. 2. Sports journalism. I. Schinke, Robert, GV706.4.A dc Published by 1%va Science Publishers, Inc. New York

6 CoNTENTs Preface Chapter 1 Chapter 2 A Primer on the Development of SEP in North America vs. Europe: Comparing the Developmental Paths of FEPSAC and AASP 1 Alessandro Quartiroli and Sam J Zizzi Comparing the Effects of Different Self-Instructions on Thought Content and Tennis Performance 17 Alexander T Latinjak, Miquel Torregrosa and Jordi Renom Chapter 3 Technical Fouls Predict Performance Outcomes in the NBA 29 Emily M Zitek and Alexander H. Jordan Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Sports-related Pain: Exploring the Perception of Athletes Pain 41 Laura Dover Wandner, Ann Sloan Devlin and Joan C. Chrisler Green with... Shyness? Moderators of the Links between Shyness and Golf Performance 59 Adam Kingsbury, Robert J. Coplan and Mila Reichel The Athlete Life Quality Scale: Development and Psychometric Analysis 77 Noah B. Geniner, Craig A. Wrisberg and John Lounsbury The Transtheoretical Model and Psychological Skills Training: Application and Implications with Elite Female Athletes 95 Linda A. Keeler and Jack C. Watson II Transitioning Out of Sport: The Psychosocial Effects of Collegiate Athletes Career-Ending Injuries 113 Amber L. Stoltenburg, Cindra S. Kamphoff and Karin Lindsfrom ix

7 vi Contents Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Warming up and Staying Loose: The Prevalence, Style, and Influence of Prepartying Behavior and Drinking Games among Intercollegiate Athletes 133 Justin F. Hummer, Joseph W. LaBne and Andrew Lac A comparison of Psychosocial and Orthopedic Data in Injured College Athletes: A Novel Application of Hurdle Regression 153 Jeremy Sibold, Alan Howard and Samuel Zizzi The Effects of Directing the Learner s Gaze on Skill Acquisition in Gymnastics 165 Thomas Heinen, Pia Vinken and Hardy Fink Group Counseling for Sports Teams: A Conceptualization Linked to Practice 183 Michael B. Johnson,Javier Cavazos Jr. and Robert E. Corb Sport Psychology Consulting with Athletes with a Disability: Out of the Ordinary and Into the Extraordinary 199 Krista J. Munroe-Chandler Chapter 14 The Road to Elite Ice Hockey Officiating 209 Kim D. Dorsch and Douglas Lawrence Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Embracing the Richness of Athletes Emotional Experiences: Intersections between Coping Research and Mental Training Consulting 225 Kent C. Kowaiski Understanding Models of Performance Enhancement from the Perspective of Emotion Regulation 243 Zella E. Moore and Frank L. Gardner A Beginning: The Resonance Process of Three Female Freestyle Wrestlers via a Resonance-Performance-Model-Based Intervention 257 Kara Stefox and David Paskevich Chapter 18 Development and Validation of the Sport Perfectionism Scale 273 Kaori Arak? and Diane L. Gill Chapter 19 Fear of Failure: What s Culture Got to Do with it? 289 Heather I Peters and Kevin A. Stefanek Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Sculpted to Perfection: Addressing and Managing Body Image Concerns and Disordered Eating among Athletes 301 Justine I Reel and Dana Voelker Reach out and Text Someone: The Creative and Effective Use of Text Messaging in Sport Performance Consultations 317 Sam Zizzi and Olivier Schmid

8 Contents vii Chapter 22 Team Mental Models in Sports: An Overview 329 Edson Medeiros Fitho and Gershon Tenenbaum Index 343

9 In: Athletic Insight s Writings in Sport Psychology ISBN: Editor: Robert Schinke 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Chapter 19 FEAR OF FAILuRE: WHAT S CuLTuRE GOT TO Do WITH IT? Heather J. Peter? and Kevin A. Stefanek University of Minnesota, Morris, MN, US The globalization of society and sport is increasing. For example, in the United States (U.S.), the percentage of foreign-born and first generation residents has increased over the past decade (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2009). Also, athletes on the Canadian national boxing team have come from Afghanistan, Barbados, Guatemala, Iran, Jamaica, Kenya, and Nigeria (Schinke, 2007). Further, sport and exercise psychology researchers have found that culture influences findings that were once thought to be universal (e.g., Peters & Williams, 2006; Yan & McCullagh, 2004). Thus, sport and exercise psychology practitioners and researchers should be aware of potential differences between individuals from diverse cultures. Culture can be defined broadly to include many aspects of an individual s identity (e.g., socioeconomic status, sex, sexual orientation, disability status, and race). For the purposes of this paper, the term culture will be used to reflect an individual s cultural background (i.e., East Asian or European American). Cultural background is associated with a set of behaviors, attitudes, and traditions that are shared by a group of people and passed down from one generation to the next (Myers, 2005). Although globalization in sport is occurring, and fmdings within both general and sport and exercise psychology (see Peters & Williams, 2009) demonstrate a clear need for research in cultural sport psychology, the consideration of culture is almost completely lacking in sport and exercise psychology publications and conference presentations (see Duda & Allison, 1990; Ram, Starek & Johnson, 2004; Kamphoff, Gill, Araki, & Hammond, 2010). For example, from 1979 to 1987 only 3.8% of empirical papers in the Journal ofsport & Exercise Psychology (JSEP) identified participants culture (e.g., race or ethnicity) and not one paper addressed culture as a main component of its theoretical framework (Duda & Allison, 1990). More recently, Ram, Starek, and Johnson (2004) conducted a content analysis of three Heather J. Peters, Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of Minnesota Morris, 109 Camden Hall, Morris MN (P) , (F) , petershcumn.edu.

10 290 Heather J. Peters and Kevin A. Stefanek popular sport psychology journals (i.e., JSEP, Journal ofapplied Sport Psychology, and The Sport Psychologist) from 1987 to 2000 and found that as few as 11.5% of the articles identified participants culture and, of those, merely 1.5% examined culture as a substantive theoretical or empirical construct. Further, the extent of cultural diversity content in the Association for Applied Sport Psychology conference programing was examined from 1986 to 2007 (Kamphoff, Gill, Araki, & Hammond, 2010). Results suggest that about 1% of the conference programs addressed race and ethnicity and that no increase in the percentage of programs that addressed race or ethnicity has occurred over the 20 year period (i.e., ). The above fmdings suggest that most sport and exercise psychology researchers and consultants have been unaware of or indifferent to the existence of cultural differences. This lack of awareness or indifference has resulted in a large proportion of sport and exercise psychology research that ignores culture-specific aspects for individuals outside of White Eurocentric society (e.g., Fisher, Butiyn, & Roper, 2003; Ryba & Wright, 2005; Schinke, Hanrahan, & Catina 2009). The paucity of cultural research within sport psychology literature is alarming and in direct conflict with the ideals of scientific inquiry (Duda & Allison, 1990). Not surprisingly, this lack of cultural research extends to the area of fear of failure and sport. The study of fear of failure within sport has garnered an increase in interest over the past two decades. For example, a literature search using PsycINFO with the search terms fear of failure and sport identified 19 articles published from 1930 to 1989, whereas 75 articles have been published from 1990 to today. Fear of failure is a multidimensional construct that occurs when individuals believe that they are failing, or anticipate that failure is possible, and that their failure will cause one or more aversive consequences (Conroy, Poczwardowski, & Henschen, 2001). The increase in research regarding fear of failure in sport has been facilitated by the creation of the Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory (PFAI: Conroy, Willow, & Metzler 2002). In addition to an overall measure of fear of failure, the PFAI has five subscales related to aversive consequences of failure, namely: fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment; fear of devaluing one s self-estimate; fear of having important others lose interest; fear of upsetting important others; and, fear of having an uncertain future. Although there has been an increase in research in the area of fear of failure, the majority of the publications related to fear of failure have involved participants from individualist cultures (e.g., United States, United Kingdom) whereas only a small percentage (e.g., Chen, Wu, Kee, Lin & Shui, 2009; Murcia, Antonio, & Conte, 2011; Tsai & Chen, 2009) of these publications have involved participants from collectivist cultures (e.g., Taiwan, Mexico). The lack of attention to individuals from collectivist cultures is problematic, considering fmdings in cultural psychology suggest that culture influences an individual s fear of failure (e.g., Eaton & Dembo, 1997; Steinberg, Dornbushch, & Brown, 1992). The theoretical concepts of collectivism and individualism provide several rationales for cultural differences in fear of failure. First, Triandis (1995) believes that individualism and collectivism are ways of characterizing the dominant perspectives of societies. Collectivism is a social pattern consisting of closely linked individuals who see themselves as parts of one or more collectives (Triandis, p. 2). Individuals from collectivist cultures tend to give priority to ingroup goals, and focus on how one s actions affect in-group members and personal connections. Individualism is a social pattern that consists of loosely linked individuals who view themselves as independent of collectives (Triandis, p. 2). Individuals froni individualist

11 Fear of Failure and Culture 291 cultures tend to give priority to personal goals and emphasize self-reliance, independence, and the pursuit of happiness. Thus, individuals from collectivist cultures tend to think of themselves in relation to others and individuals from individualist cultures tend to think of themselves as distinct from others. Hence, individuals from collectivist cultures may report higher levels of fear of failure on the two fear of failure subscales concerning how an individual relates to others (i.e., fear of having important others lose interest; fear of upsetting important others). Second, collectivist particularly Asian societies tend to emphasize shame as a motivating negative emotion (Sue & Sue, 2003; Yeh & Huang, 1996), whereas individualist societies tend to emphasize guilt. Shame tends to be a collectivist motivator, in which the offending behavior is a reflection of one s community or upbringing (Mio, Barker, & Tumambing, 2012) and the individual does not wish to bring shame upon one s community or family by acting negatively. Additionally, East Asian cultures have been described as shamebased societies because when individuals fail, they not only bring shame to the self, but to the entire family. Thus, individuals from collectivist cultures may report higher levels of fear of failure on the fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment subscale than individuals from individualist cultures. Third, whereas a positive self-regard is characteristic of individuals from individualist cultures, a self-critical orientation is characteristic of individuals from collectivist cultures (e.g., Heine, 2001; Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999). Heine (2001) proposes that the self-critical tendency, common in East Asian culture, assists individuals in becoming aware of shortcomings that may prevent them from living up to their roles and obligations to others. For example, the Japanese culture encourages the practice of hanse, which is the act of routinely reflecting on one s shortcomings and problems in order to gain recognition of them and thereby take the first step toward self-improvement (Kitayama, 2002). Therefore, individuals from collectivist cultures, when compared to individuals from individualist cultures, may report higher levels of fear of failure on the fear of devaluing one s selfestimate subscale. Finally, Heine and Lehman (1997, 1999) suggest that the tendency toward self-criticism in collectivist cultures is probably due to prevention-focused motivation (i.e., the desire to avoid future failures). Lee, Aaker, and Gardner (2000) found that East Asians had a prevention focus (i.e., identifying potential losses), whereas Americans had a promotion focus (i.e., identifying potential gains) during five different tasks. Further, individuals from collectivist cultures were found to be more susceptible to fear of academic failure as compared to individuals from individualist cultures (Eaton & Dembo, 1997; Steinberg, Dombushch, & Brown, 1992). Together, these findings suggest that individuals from collectivist cultures may report higher levels of fear of failure on the overall measure of fear of failure than individuals from individualist cultures. PREsENT STUDY Guided by the theoretical concepts of collectivism and individualism, this study examined self-reported levels of fear of failure for East Asian and European American intramural sport athletes. It was hypothesized that East Asian participants, when compared to

12 European American participants, would have significantly higher levels on the overall measure of fear of failure and on four out of the five subscales (i.e., fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment, fear of devaluing one s self-estimate, fear of having important individualism and existing research provided no basis for a prediction. fifth subscale, fear of an uncertain future, because the theory of collectivism and others lose interest, and fear of upsetting important others). No hypothesis was made for the and type and duration of sport and exercise participation. origin, age when they moved to the U.S., previous time spent in countries other than the U.S., The follow-up questionnaire included questions about participants age, sex, country of Follow-up Questionnaire.90 for European American participants. PFAI has five subscales that quantify fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment (7 each subscale can be examined individually and all 25 items can be aggregated to produce an overall fear of failure score. Higher positive scores on each of the five subscales and the sample, the overall scale had mean alpha coefficients of.90 for East Asian participants and The PFAI (Conroy, Willow, & Metzler, 2002) is a measure of fear of failure that, unlike other fear of failure measures, demonstrates discriminant validity from fear of success. The overall fear of failure measure indicate higher levels of fear of failure. With the current items), fear of devaluing one s self-estimate (4 items), fear of important others losing interest believe at all to +2 = Believe 100% of the time. According to Conroy, Willow, and Metzler, (4 items). Each question was answered on a 5-point scale that ranged from 2 = Do not (5 items), fear of upsetting important others (5 items), and fear of having an uncertain future Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory (PFAI) Measures parents were born in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam, Philippines or Thailand. The European American participants had ancestors of European descent and both the participants and their parents were born in the U.S. East Asian participants had an average age of 20.5 average age of 18.9 years and lived in the U.S. during that time. European American participants who lived abroad for any period of time were removed from the study (n = 7). general education course requirement or for $ The East Asian participants and their the U.S., participated in this study. Individuals participated for either partial fulfillment of a and 18 male) students, who participated in intramural sports at a southwestern university in years and lived in the U.S. an average of 9.6 years. European American participants had an A total of 26 East Asian (12 female and 14 male) and 39 European American (21 female Participants METHOD 292 Heather J. Peters and Kevin A. Stefanek

13 Fear of Failure and Culture 293 Procedure Prior to data collection, the present study was approved by the University of Arizona Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research. Students were solicited to participate in the study either through one of their classes or through signs posted in locations where intramural activities took place. Upon arriving at the sport psychology research lab, the investigator described the study to potential participants. If the participants agreed to participate, they signed consent forms. The experimenter then asked the participant to fill out a packet of questionnaires. The PFAI was the first questionnaire in the packet. After the participants were done with the study, the experimenter administered the follow-up questionnaire and provided a debriefing that explained the purpose of the study and answered any questions that the participants had. Preliminary Analyses RESULTS Descriptive Data Table 1 presents the descriptive data for East Asian participants and European American participants broken down by sex. A two-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) examined potential culture and sex differences in the participants days per week of cardiovascular participation, age, and grade point average in order to determine potential covariates. Results indicated a significant main effect for culture, F(3, 59) = 3.76, p =.0 15, however there were no significant main effects for sex, F(3, 59) = 1.46, p =.23 3, or the interaction, F(3, 59) =.26, p =.856. There was a significant cultural difference in days per week of cardiovascular exercise, F(l, 61) = S.95,p =.018, and age, F(l, 61) = 6.48,p =.013, however, no significant difference occurred in grade point average, F(l, 61) =.l52,p =.434. Thus, days per week of cardiovascular exercise and participant s age were correlated with the five fear of failure subscales and the overall fear of failure scale. All correlations were not significant, r s =.190, p s>.07, thus no covariate was included in the statistical analyses. Culture and its Influence on Fear of Failure A one-way MANOVA examined culture differences in participants levels of fear of failure on the five fear of failure subscales and overall measure of fear of failure. The multivariate effect was significant, F(5, 58) = 2.54,p =.038, eta =.180. All Levene s tests of equality of error variance were not significant, indicating equal variances. Significant univariate effects were found for each of the five subscales and the overall fear of failure measure, with East Asian participants reporting significantly higher levels of fear of failure than European American participants on all measures. Specifically, a significant univariate The data used for this study was collected as part of a larger project. For full details regarding the entire project please see Peters, H. J. (2006). A cultural analysis of self-talk: Its relationship to performance and potential moderators. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 62 p.

14 294 Heather J. Peters and Kevin A. Stefanek effect was found for the fear of shame and embarrassment subscale, F( 1, 62) = 4.03, p =.049, eta =.06 1, East Asian participants (M=.159, SD =.74), European American participants (M = -.248, SD =.84); for the fear of devaluing one s self-estimate subscale, F(l, 62) = 6.87, p.0 11, eta =.100, East Asian participants (M = -.115, SD =.86), European American participants (M = -.678, SD =.83); for the fear of important others losing interest subscale, F(l, 62) = 6.6l,p =.013, eta =.096, East Asian participants (M= -.662, SD =.75), European American participants (M = -1.13, SD =.70); for the fear of upsetting important others subseale, F(1, 62) = 5.94,p =.018, eta =.087, East Asian participants (M= -.031, SD =.90), European American participants (M = -.547, SD =.78); for the fear of an uncertain future, F(1, 62) = 8.92,p =.004, eta =.126, East Asian participants (M= -.183, SD =.61), European American participants (M = -.645, SD =.60); and the overall fear of failure measure, F( 1, 62) = 11.37, p =.001, eta =.155, East Asian participants (M = -.166, SD =.54), European American participants (M= -.650, SD =.58). Table 1. DescriptIve Statistics by Sex and Culture Group Cardio participation Age Grade point average M(SD) M(SD) M(SD) East Asians Female 3.75 (.87) (1.83) 3.38 (.42) Male 3.86 (.95) (4.67) 3.22 (.74) Total 3.81 (.90) (3.58) 3.30 (.61) European Americans Female 4.41 (1.30) 1859 (.85) 3.56 (.35) Male 4.65(1.32) 19.35(1.1) 3.24(.46) Total 4.51 (1.30) 18.92(1.03) 3.42 (.46) DIscussIoN The purpose of the study was to examine the influence culture on fear of failure. The theoretical concepts of collectivism and individualism provided several rationales for cultural differences in fear of failure. As predicted, Ea.st Asian participants had higher levels of fear of failure than European American participants on the four fear of failure subscales (i.e., fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment, fear of devaluing one s self-estimate, fear of having important others lose interest, and fear of upsetting important others) and the overall measure of fear of failure. Additionally, East Asian participants scored higher than European American participants on the fifth subscale, fear of an uncertain future. These results can be explained by the tendency for individuals from collectivist societies to be socialized to create a positive view of the self by not making mistakes or by not losing. In contrast, individuals from mdividualist cultures construct a positive view of the self by doing one s best or by striving to win (Heine, et al., 1999). This infonnation suggests that if East Asian athletes are taught to have a positive view of themselves by not making mistakes or by not losing, then

15 significantly higher levels of fear of important others losing interest and fear of upsetting important others. This difference may be explained by the role others play in defining the East Asian participants, compared to European American participants, reported they are more likely to have higher levels of fear of failure than individuals who are taught to strive to do one s best (i.e., European American athletes). others. On the other hand, European Americans are taught to have a predominantly sometimes pointed to as one of the general characteristics of self-concept among the are the mechanisms that traditionally help reinforce societal expectations and proper fmdings (e.g., Heine & Lehman, 1999; Yanagida & Marsella, 1978) have found that fewer East Asian participants reported higher levels of fear of failure than European American goals, self-talk, and contextual motivation. Future research should examine whether or not the cultures are itnportant to sport psychology consultants as well as researchers. Consultants should be aware that what we assume to increase performance (e.g., increasing positive selftalk and decreasing fear of failure) might not be the case for athletes from other cultures, then they may partially explain why East Asian participants had significantly higher levels of from collectivist cultures. However, if these findings do generalize to collectivist cultures such as preferences, traits, and abilities, promoting one s own goals, and seeing people as (1986): a negative evaluation of the self, or strong awareness of weaker aspects of self, is levels of fear of devaluing one s own self-estimate than European American participants. East Asians reported higher levels of fear of shame and embarrassment compared to from an individualist culture and research is needed to support this finding for individuals interdependent seif-construal, which is associated with focusing on the connectedness of human beings, promoting the goals of the group, and seeing people as primarily related to independent seif-construal, which is associated with focusing on one s own internal attributes separate individuals. Given the importance of relationships to East Asians, it is not surprising that East Asian participants reported more fear of important others losing interest and fear of upsetting important others than European American participants in the current study. Compared to European Americans, East Asians reported higher levels of fear of devaluing one s own self-estimate. This result can be explained by the work of Kashiwagi Japanese (p. 180). If athletes from collectivist cultures are taught to have a negative evaluation of the self, then it is not surprising that the East Asian participants had higher European Americans. This is in line with Shon and Ja (1982) who wrote Shame and shaming behavior (p. 214). Although Conroy (2004) found that fears of experiencing shame and embarrassment were associated with maladaptive achievement goals, self-talk, and contextual motivation, this relationship may not occur for East Asians. Cultural psychology research negative consequences occur for individuals from collectivist cultures when they view themselves negatively as compared to those from individualist cultures. Thus, even though participants, they would not necessarily experience higher levels of maladaptive achievement self-critical orientation present among people from collectivist cultures moderates the relationship between fear of failure and negative constructs (e.g., maladaptive self-talk, decreased performance, cheating). These potential differences among athletes from different especially collectivist ones. Recent research examined the developmental origins of fear of failure in adolescent athletes (Sagar & Lavallee, 2010). The results indicate that high parental expectations for achievement lead to increased levels of fear of failure. This work was conducted with youth self (Markus & Kitayania, 1991). East Asians are taught to have a predominantly Fear of Failure and Culture 295

16 parents (Stevenson et al., 1990). This higher expectation for academic achievement is the individuals from East Asian collectivist cultures more so than in individuals from other American collectivist cultures, lower levels of well-being and positivity were found in individuals from East Asian cultures (Diener & Diener, 1995, Oishi, Diener, Lucas & Sub, than both Hispanics and Asians and that Hispanics reported higher levels of self-esteem than East Asians, and European Americans. According to current research, Latinos would be East Asian participants lived in the U.S. for an average of 9.6 years. A growing body of Asian participants had either lived in the U.S. for a shorter period of time or not at all. Hence, future research could evaluate fear of failure in athletes from different countries (e.g., China, failure reinforces the assertion that culture matters and suggests a need for theory driven The Authors would like to thank Jean M. Williams for her input. AcKNowLEDGMENT if East Asian parents focus on effort, rather than on personal ability, mediates the in academic achievement than effort (Stevenson et al., 1990). Thus, East Asian parents, result of East Asian parents believing that their child s achievement is based on effort more so compared to American parents, may also have higher expectations for their child s athletic achievement which, based on the work of Sagar and Lavallee (2010), could lead to higher relationship between fear of failure and negative consequences. Just as researchers and practitioners should not generalize findings from individualist to collectivist cultures, they also should not generalize fmdings from one collectivist culture collectivist cultures. For example, in comparisons of individuals from East Asian and Latin Asians (Twenge & Crocker, 2002). Future research could compare fear of failure in Latinos, predicted to have lower levels of fear of failure than East Asians, and higher levels of fear of research may want to include a measure of social desirability. Another limitation was that research shows that acculturation moderates culture s influence on various constructs (e.g., Heine & Lehman, 1999; Kovacev & Shute, 2004). Stronger results may have occurred if East Japan, or Korea) in their respective country. Duda and Allison (1990) made a call to researchers within the field of sport and exercise psychology to increase their investigation of culture and diversity issues. Unfortunately, Ram indicates that researchers have not heeded the call. The findings that East Asian participants scored significantly higher than European American participants on every measure of fear of cultural sport psychology research. et al. s (2004) content analysis of research publications since Duda and Allison s paper have been found to have higher expectations for academic achievement than American (e.g., China) to another (e.g., Mexico). A Self-critical orientation is typically found in A limitation of the current study was that self-report data was collected on one occasion. fear of failure than European American participants in the current study. East Asian parents than ability. Alternatively, American parents believe that academic ability plays a greater role levels of fear of failure in sport. Futwe research should examine this possibility and examine failure than European Americans. Thus, social desirability or another response bias could have affected the results. Future 296 Heather J. Peters and Kevin A. Stefanek 1999). Further, a meta-analysis found that in the U.S. Whites scored higher in self-esteem

17 I Fear of Failure and Culture 297 REFERENCES Chen, L. H., Wu, C., Kee, Y. H., Lin, M., & Shui, S. (2009). Fear of failure, 2 x 2 achievement goal and self-handicapping: An examination of the hierarchical model of achievement motivation in physical education. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34, Conroy, D. E. (2004). The unique psychological meanings of multidimensional fears of failing. Journal ofsport & Exercise Psychology, 26, Conroy, D. E., Poczwardowski, A., & Henschen, K. P. (2001). Evaluative criteria and consequences associated with failure and success for elite athletes and performing artists. Journal ofapplied.svort Psychology, 13, Conroy, D. E., Willow, J. P., & Metzler, J. N. (2002). Multidimensional fear of failure measurement: The Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, Diener, E. & Diener, M. (1995). Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. Journal ofpersonality and Social Psychology, 68, Duda, J. L., & Allison, M. T. (1990). Cross-cultural analysis in exercise and sport psychology: A void in the field. Journal ofsport & Exercise Psychology, 12, Eaton, M., & Dembo, M. (1997). Differences in the motivational beliefs of Asian American and non-asian students. Journal ofeducational Psychology, 89, Fisher, L. A., Butryn, T. M., & Roper, E. A. (2003). Diversifying (and politicizing) sport psychology through cultural studies: A promising perspective. The Sport Psychologist, Heine, S. J. (2001). Self as cultural product: An examination of East Asian and North American selves. Journal ofpersonality, 69, Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. R. (1997). Culture, dissonance, and self-affirmation. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. R. (1999). Culture, self-discrepancies, and self-satisfaction. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1999). Is there a universal need for positive self-regard? Psychological Review, 106, Kamphoff, C. S., Gill, D. L., Araki, K., & Hammond, C. C. (2010). A content analysis of cultural diversity in the Association for Applied Sport Psychology s conference programs. Journal ofapplied Sport Psychology, 22, Kashiwagi, K. (1986). Personality development of adolescents. In H. W. Stevenson, Azuma H., & Hakuta K. (Eds), Child development and education in Japan (pp ). New York: Freeman. Kitayama, S. (2002). Cultural psychology of the self: A renewed look at independence and interdependence. In C. Hofsten & L. Backman (Eds.), Psychology at the turn of the millennium (pp ). Florence, KY: Taylor & Frances/Routledge. Kovacev, L., & Shute, R. (2004). Acculturation and social support in relation to psychosocial adjustment of adolescent refugees resettled in Australia. international Journal of Behavioral Development. 28,

18 298 Heather J. Peters and Kevin A. Stefanek Lee, A. Y., Aaker, J. L., & Gardner, W. L. (2000). The pleasures and pains of distinct self construals: The role of interdependence in regulatory focus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, Mb, J. S., Barker, L. A., & Tumambing, J. S. (2012). Multicultural psychology: Understanding our diverse communities ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Murcia, M., Antonio, J., & Conte, M. L. (2011). Predicción del miedo a equivocarse en jugadores de baloncesto a través del clima tarea de los iquales y Ia motivación intrinseca. Revista Mexicana de Psicologia, 28, Myers, D. G. (2005). Social psychology. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Oishi, S., Diener, F. F., Lucas, R. E., & Suh, E. M. (1999). Cross-cultural variations in predictors of life satisfaction: Perspectives from needs and values. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, Peters, H. J., & Williams, J. M. (2006). Moving culture to the foregiound: An investigation of self-talk, performance, and persistence following feedback. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 18, Peters, H. J., and Williams, J. M. (2009). Rationale for developing a cultural sport psychology. In R. J. Schinke & S. J. Hanrahan (Eds.), Cultural sport psychology (pp ). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Ram, N. Starek, J., & Johnson, J. (2004). Race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation: Still a void in sport and exercise psychology? Journal ofsport & Exercise Psychology, 26, Ryba, T. V., & Wright, H. K. (2005). From mental game to cultural praxis: A cultural studies model s implications for the future of sport psychology. Quest, 57, Sagar, S. S., & Lavallee, D. (2010). The developmental origins of fear of failure in adolescent athletes: Examining parental practices. Psychology ofsport and Exercise, 11, Schinke, R. J. (2007). A four-year chronology with national team boxing in Canada. Journal ofsport Science and Medicine, 6, 1-7. Schinke, R. J. Hanrahan, S. J., & Catina, P. (2009). Introduction to cultural sport psychology. In R. J. Schinke & S. J. Hanrahan (Eds.) Cultural sport psychology (pp. 3-11). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Shon, S. P., & Ja, D. Y. (1982). Asian families. In M. McGoldrick, J. K. Pearce, & J. Giordano (Eds.), Ethnicity &family therapy (pp ). New York: Guilford. Steinberg, L., Dornbusch, S. M., & Brown, B. B. (1992). Ethnic differences in adolescent achievement: An ecological perspective. American Psychologist, 47, Stevenson, H. W., Lee, S-Y.. Chen, C. Stigler J. W., Hsu, C-C., Kitamura, S., & Hatano, G. (1990). Contexts of achievement: A study of American, Chinese, and Japanese children. In H. W. Stevenson & S.-Y Lee (Eds.), Monographs of the Societyfor Research in Child Development, 55, New York: Blackwell Publishing. Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2003). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice ed.). New York: Wiley. Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview. Tsai, Y., & Chen, L. H. (2009). Relation of motivational climate and fear of failure in Taiwanese adolescent athletes. Psychological Reports, 104, (3Id (4th

19 Fear of Failure and Culture 299 Twenge, J. M., & Crocker, J. (2002). Race and self-esteem: Meta-analyses comparing Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians and comment on Gray-Little and Hafdahl (2000). Psychological Bulletin, 128, U.S. Bureau of Census. (2009). Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: Retrieved from 10/briefs! c20 1 Obr-02.pdf. Yan, J. H., & McCullagh, p. (2004). Cultural influence on youth s motivation of participation in physical activity. Journal ofsport Behavior. 27, Yanagida, E., & Marsella, A. J. (1978). The relationship between depression and self-concept discrepancy among different generations of Japanese-American women. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34, Yeh, C. J., & Huang, K. (1996). The collectivistic nature of ethnic identity development among Asian-American college students. Adolescence, 31,