TABLE OF CONTENTS. General introduction...1. Definition of terms...2. Lay trauma counsellor...2. Secondary traumatic stress...3. Constructivism...

Transcription

1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page number 1 INTRODUCTION General introduction...1 Definition of terms...2 Lay trauma counsellor...2 Secondary traumatic stress...3 Constructivism...3 Aim and Rationale of the Study...4 Design of the Study...6 Sampling and Selection...7 Data Collection...7 Data Analysis...8 Format of the Study...8 Conclusion TRAUMA COUNSELLOR TRAINING Introduction...11 Brief overview: Origin and nature of lay counselling...11 Basic lay trauma counselling skills...14 Creating an atmosphere conducive to communication..15 Calmness...19 Cognitive techniques...20 Making plans...22 Boundaries of lay counselling role 23

2 Group Counselling...24 Multicultural sensitivity...26 Taking care of the trauma counsellor...27 Conclusion THE EFFECTS OF TRAUMA COUNSELLING ON LAY TRAUMA COUNSELLORS Introduction...30 Trauma Counsellors: The Cost of Caring...30 Secondary Traumatic Stress Reaction (STS)...31 Reported indicators of psychological distress in trauma counsellors...33 Distressing emotions...30 Intrusion...33 Avoidance...33 Somatic complaints...34 Physiological arousal...34 Impairment of day-to-day functioning in social and personal roles...34 Cognitive changes in the beliefs, expectations and assumptions that trauma counsellors hold...34 Relational disturbances...35 How does STS occur?...36 Multidimensional model for understanding the onset of secondary traumatic stress...37 The trauma counsellor...38

3 Personality characteristics...38 Empathic ability...38 Lack of assertiveness...39 Cognitive thoughts that engender burnout...39 Demographic characteristics...40 Trauma counsellor=s history...40 Human Services Organisations...41 Resources...41 Structure...41 Roles...42 Unique features of the job of trauma counselling...42 Nature of the trauma...43 Profile of survivors or care-recipients...43 Individual behaviours...44 Demographic variables of clients...44 Chronicity...44 Acuity...45 Context B macro-environment...45 Media...45 South Africa...45 Dynamics and implications of the multidimensional approach...46 Generalisations from Research...47 Implications...47 Learning without experiencing the pain?...49 Positive effects of working with trauma survivors...49

4 Conclusion CONSTRUCTIVISM Introduction...52 Brief overview of objectivist or modernist principles...52 Application of modernist principles to the treatment domain...53 Shift from modernism to postmodernism...54 Schools of constructivist thought...57 Radical constructivism and social constructionism Co-constructivism Language, stories and constructivism A constructivist perspective on problems and therapy...63 Constructivism and the present study...67 Conclusion RESEARCH APPROACH Introduction...69 Constructivist objection to a quantitative research paradigm Qualitative research paradigm...71 Justification for choosing a qualitative research approach...72 Reliability and validity in qualitative research...73 Reliability with reference to this study...74 Validity with reference to this study...75 Role of the researcher...75 Some thoughts which informed the researcher=s thinking...76

5 Normal and abnormal behaviour...77 Views of counselling...77 Selection of participants...77 Data analysis...80 Closing remarks on the research approach SANDY=S STORY Personal data...85 Introduction...85 The Background...86 Researcher=s initial impressions of Sandy...87 How Sandy became involved in counselling and her impressions of the training course...87 Effects of counselling View of the world...89 Repeated thoughts about clients...90 Lack of concentration...91 Helpfulness (control) vs. helplessness (lack of control)...92 Questioning her counselling effectiveness...93 Experienced similar fear as clients...94 Physical Effects...96 Personal Growth...97 Self esteem/finds meaning...97 Renewed appreciation for life...99 Learning about herself...99 Learning new skills and ways of coping...101

6 Analysis of the effects of counselling on Sandy What helps Sandy to cope Idiosyncratic strategy Talking Life experience Appreciation from clients Achieving a balance between detachment and involvement 105 Organisational support Balance: Distinction between counselling role and full-time job Expected responses from clients Boundaries of lay counselling role 109 Flexibility Network of family and friends What could hamper her coping Desire to help versus inability to let go Impatience Language barrier Researcher=s perception of Sandy=s functioning116 Summary and Conclusion DOMINIQUE=S STORY Personal data Introduction The Background Researcher=s initial impressions of Dominique...122

7 How Dominique became involved in counselling and her impressions of the training course Effects of counselling Emotional distress Feelings of helplessness and incompetence Questioned her counselling effectiveness Pessimistic view of the world Physical effects Analysis of effects of counselling on Dominique 132 What could have hampered Dominique=s ability to cope Lack of supportive systems Over-exposure to trauma Insufficient training Suitability for counselling Disengagement and involvement Inability to deal with uncertainty Researcher=s perception of Dominique=s functioning Summary and Conclusion NOMSA=S STORY Personal data Introduction The background Researcher=s initial impressions of Nomsa How Nomsa became involved in counselling and her impression of the

8 training course 144 Effects of counselling Questioning her counselling effectiveness Physical effects Experiencing similar pain as client Personal growth Seeing the positive in others and self-esteem Analysis of effects of counselling on Nomsa What helps Nomsa to cope Talking Humour Learning and meaning Boundaries of lay counselling role 155 Detachment vs. involvement Positive attitude Job experience Life experience Strong identity/culture What could hamper Nomsa=s coping Over-exposure Impatience Researcher=s perspective of Nomsa=s functioning Summary and Conclusion COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS Introduction...167

9 Effects of counselling Maintaining a questioning attitude Physical Effects Emotional distress Positive effects What helps them to cope Personal style Life experience Training Support systems: organisational and personal What could hamper their coping Personal style Organisational support and training Conclusion CONCLUSION Introduction Evaluation of the study Strengths of the study Limitations of the study Recommendations for future research Conclusion BIBLIOGRAPHY...196

10 APPENDIX A (literal transcription: Sandy B interview 1) APPENDIX B (literal transcription: Sandy B interview 2) APPENDIX C (literal transcription: Dominique) APPENDIX D (literal transcription: Nomsa)...240