Domains of Development Periods of Development Theory Continuous Development Discontinuous Development Tabula rasa Nobel savages

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1 !! Glazer'1' ' PSY 304: Intro to Child Psychology Midterm Review Lesson 1 Chapter 1: History, Theory, and Applied Directions Domains of Development Physical Cognitive Emotional & Social Periods of Development 1. Prenatal period (conception birth) 2. Infancy & toddlerhood (birth 2) a. Infancy = 1 st year b. Toddlerhood = 2 nd year c. Children form their first intimate ties to others 3. Early childhood (2-6) a. Make believe play, sense of morality 4. Middle school (6-11) a. Games with rules, friendships 5. Adolescence (11-18) a. Values and goals 6. Emerging adulthood (18-25) Theory An orderly integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior. Continuous Development A process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were to begin with. Discontinuous Development A process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerges at specific times. Tabula rasa Latin for blank slate Children begin as nothing at all; their characters are shaped by experiences The idea that children are neither innately good nor evil, but influenced and shaped by experiences during the course of development Locke Nobel savages Children are naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and innate plan for orderly, healthy growth Jean-Jacques Rousseau The Normative Approach Measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development Tells us what to expect at each age Psychoanalytic perspective Children move though a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations, How these conflicts are resolved determines the person s ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety. Psychosocial theory In addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demand, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills at each stage that make the individual an active contributing member of

2 !! Glazer'2' society Behaviorism Directly observable events stimuli and responses Social learning theory Emphasized modeling as a powerful source of development Information processing Human mind might also be viewed as a symbolmanipulating system through which information flows. Children problem solve by actively making sense of their experiences & modify thinking in response to environmental demands Developmental cognitive neuroscience Research from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between the changes in the brain and the developing child s cognitive process and behavior patterns Ethology Concerned with the adaptive value of behavior and its evolutionary history Sensitive period A time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences. Critical period Child is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive Evolutionary development psychology Sociocultural theory Ecological systems theory Dynamic systems perspective Social vs. public policy behaviors but needs stimulating environment Seeks to understand the adaptive value of species-wide cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age Focuses on how culture is transmitted to the next generation Views child as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment. 1. Microsystem = activities and interaction patterns in the child s immediate surrounding. 2. Mesosystem = encompasses connections between microsystems (i.e. home, school, etc ) 3. Exosystem = consist of social settings that no not contain children, but that affect child s experiences in immediate setting. 4. Macrosystem = consist of cultural values, laws, customs, & resources The child s mind, body, and physical and social worlds form an integrated system that guides the mastery of new skills. $ The system is dynamic Social policy any planned set of actions by a group, institution, or governing body directed at attaining a social goal Public policy laws and government programs aimed at improving current conditions Theorist View Development Nature/Nurture John Locke Tabula rasa Latin for blank slate Continuous Nurture Children begin as nothing at all; their characters are shaped

3 !! Glazer'3' by experience More compassionate rearing Jean-Jacques Rousseau Nobel savages children are naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and innate plan for orderly, healthy growth Discontinuous Nature Darwin G. Stanley Hall Alfred Binet Child-centered philosophy Includes stage and maturation Forefather of scientific studies The theory of evolution Natural selection & survival of the fittest Founder of the child study movement Developed theories based on evolutionary ideas Student= Arnold Gesell The normative approach measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development Tells us what to expect at each age Mental Testing Movement Used normative approach to identify children with learning problems Defined intelligence as good judgment, planning, and critical reflection Maturational Process James Mark Baldwin Freud Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale Early Developmental Theorist Stages Both are important * Psychoanalytic Theorist Discontinuous Both nature and Psychosexual theory emphasizes that how parents manage their child s sexual and aggressive drives in the fist few years is crucial for healthy personality development Erikson 3 parts of personality 1. Id = needs & desires 2. Ego = rational, drives ego 3. Superego = conscience Psychosocial theory in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demand, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills at each stage that make the individual an active contributing member of society Discontinuous Both nature and John Watson Believed that normal development varies in relation to each culture s life situation Behaviorist Continuous Nurture B.F. Skinner Classical conditioning to determine that environment is the supreme force in development Information processing Operant conditioning theory Continuous Both nature and

4 !! Glazer'4' Behavior can increase with reinforcement and decrease with punishment Piaget Cognitive-development theory children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world Contuinuous Both nature and Vygotsky Stages Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational Sociocultural theory how culture is transmitted to the next generation Social interactions are necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community s culture Children internalize interactions to acquire skills Both continuous and discontinuous Both nature and Neglects biological side of development* Chapter 2: Research Strategies Systematic observations Self-reports Psychophysiological methods Clinical, or case study method Ethnography Reliability Inter-rater reliability Test-rater reliability Validity Internal validity Naturalistic observation observation of behavior in natural environment Structured observation observation of behavior in a lab, where conditions are the same for all participants Clinical interview flexible interview process in which the investigator obtains an account of the participant s thoughts Structured interview, questionnaires, and test each participant is asked the same question in the same way Methods that measure the relationship between physiological processes and behavior A full picture of an individual s psychological functioning, obtained by combining interviews, observations, test scores, and sometimes psychophysiological assessments To find cultural meanings of children s behaviors via participant observations The consistency of measures of behavior Agreement of a given behavior Reliability of self report and psychophysiological data can be demonstrated by comparing child s response to same measures on separate actions Must accurately measure characteristics that the researcher set out to measure The degree to which conditions internal to the design of the study permit an accurate test of the researcher s hypothesis or question

5 !! Glazer'5' External validity The degree to which their findings generalize to setting and participants outside the original study Correlational design Researchers gather information on individuals generally in natural life circumstances, and make no effort to alter their experience. Look for relationships between participants characteristics and their behavior development Correlation coefficient A number that describes how two measures are associated with each another Magnitude of number shows strength of relationship o 0=no relationship o Closer value to or -1.00, the stronger the relationship o +/- Refers to the direction of the relationship o + = Both variables ^ o - = As 1 variable ^ the other decreases Experimental design Permits inferences about cause and effect because researchers use an evenhanded procedure to assign people to 2 or more treatment Independent variable 1 causes changes to the other Dependent variable The variable that is influenced by the independent variable Confounding variable Field experiments Natural/quasi experiments Longitudinal design Cross-sectional design Sequential design Microgenetic design Event sampling Time sampling So closely associated that their effects on an outcome cannot be distinguished Researchers use random assignment and matching to avoid this problem Natural setting Comparing treatments that already exist Groups of people are carefully chosen that have similar characteristics Participants are studied repeatedly at different ages, and changes are noted as they get older Groups of people differing in age are studied at the same point in time Conducts several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies at varying times Presents children with a novel task and follows their mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions The researcher records all instances of a particular behavior during a specified time period The researcher records whether certain behaviors occur during a sample of short intervals Lesson 2 Chapter 3: Biological Foundations, Prenatal Development, and Birth Phenotype Directly observable characteristic; depend on individuals genotype (also environment) Genotype The complex blend of genetic information that determines

6 !! Glazer'6' our species and influences all our unique characteristics DNA Gene Mitosis Gametes Meiosis All chromosomes are made up of DNA A segment of SNA along the length of a chromosome Process in which DNA duplicates itself The sex cells sperm and ovum Only contain 23 chromosomes Formed through a process of meiosis Halves the number of chromosomes normally present in body cells Zygote Crossing over Autosomes Sex chromosome Identical twins The resulting cell when a sperm and ovum unite at fertilization 46 chromosomes In meiosis, after chromosomes pair up, and each one copies itself. Then crossing over occurs in which chromosomes next to each other break at one or more points along their length and exchange segments, so that genes from one are replaced by genes from another. Not sex chromosomes 22 matching pairs of chromosomes The 23 rd pair Females = XX Males = XY o 1 sperm carries X and the other Y, so which ever reaches ovum determines sex When a zygote that has started to duplicate separates into two clusters of cells that develop into two individuals Have the same genetic makeup

7 !! Glazer'7' Zygote duplicates itself Fraternal twins Results from the release and fertilization of 2 ova Allele Modifier genes Incomplete dominance X-link inheritance Genomic imprinting Mutation Polygenic inheritance Conception 2 forms of each gene occur at the same place on the chromosome 1 from mom and 1 from dad. Each form of a gene is called an allele. If the alleles of both parents are alike, the child is homozygous and will display the trait If they differ, the child is heterozygous and relationship between alleles will determine which trait will appear o Dominant - DD o Recessive dd or Dd Enhance or dilute the effects of other genes Both alleles are expressed in the phenotype combo of a trait or in between 2 traits When a harmful allele is carried on the X chromosome, males are more likely to be affected because their sex chromosomes do not match Alleles are imprinted so that one pair member is activated regardless of its makeup A sudden but permanent change in a segment of DNA Many genes determine the characteristics in question - While the ovum is travelling the area in the ovary (now called corpus leteum) secretes hormones that prepare lining for a fertilized ovum Trimester Period Weeks Major events Frist Zygote 1 The one-celled zygote multiplies and forms a blastocyst 2 Implantation The blastocyst burrows into the uterine lining. Structures that feed and protect the developing organism begin to

8 !! Glazer'8' form Amnion encloses the developing organism in amniotic fluid Chorion surrounds the amnion. Tiny hair like villi emerge Placenta Umbilical cord Embryo 3-4 Primitive brain and spinal cord appear 5-8 Many external body structures and internal organs form. The sense of touch begins to develops and the embryo can move Fetus 9-12 Sex is evident Second Large enough for mother to feel A white cheese like substance called vernix covers the skin & protects from amniotic fluid White downy hair called lanugo also covers body to help vernix stick to skin Reacts to sound Third Age of viability point in which baby can survive occurs between weeks Spends more time awake Teratogens Environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period Harming factors: Dose Heredity Other negative influences Age Heritability estimates Measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors Kinship Studies Canalization Genetic-environmental correlation Epigenesis Compare the characteristics of family members The tendency of heredity to restrict the development of some characteristics to just one or few outcomes i.e. walking Our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed Means development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanged between heredity and all levels of the environment. Lesson 3 Chapter 4 infancy: Early learning, Motor skills, and Perceptual Capacities Reflex An inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation States of arousal Degrees of sleep and wakefulness REM electrical brain-wave activity is remarkably similar to that of the waking state. NREM the body is almost motionless.

9 !! Glazer'9' Classical conditioning Before learning: An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) must consistently produce a reflexive, or unconditioned response (UCR) i.e. the stimulus of breast milk (UCS) results in sucking (UCR) To produce learning: Present a neutral stimulus that does not lead to the reflex at the same time as the UCS i.e. rubbing the baby s forehead when feeding Operant conditioning Habituation Recovery Mirror neurons Gross motor development Fine motor development Cephalocaudal trend Proximodal trend Dynamic systems theory of motor development Prereaching Ulnar grasp Pincer grasp Statistical learning capacity Once learning has occurred The neutral stimulus by itself produces a response similar to the reflexive response. The neutral stimulus is then called a conditioned stimulus (CS), and the response that it elicits is called a conditioned response (CR) i.e. rubbing forehead results in sucking Infants act, or operate, on the environment, and the stimuli that follow their behavior change the probability that the behavior will occur again Reinforcement encourages behavior Punishment removes behavior Gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation A new stimulus, a change in the environment, causes the habituated response to return to a high level Specialized cells in the motor areas of the cerebral cortex in primates that underlie these capabilities. Mirror neurons fire identically when a primate hears or sees an action and when it carries out that action on its own. Control over actions that help infants get around in the environment Smaller movements Head-to-tail sequence. Motor control of the head comes before control of the arms and trunk, which comes before control of the legs Meaning from the center of the body outward: head, trunk, and arm control precedes coordination of the hands and fingers Mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action. When motor skills work as a system, separate abilities blend together, each cooperating with other to produce more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment. Poorly coordinated swipes A clumsy motion in which the baby s fingers close against the palm By the end of the first year, infants use the thumb and index finger opposably in a well coordinated grasp By analyzing the speech stream for patterns regularly