Psychological distress in Australian case managers working with the unemployed

Transcription

1 Psychologicl distress in Austrlin cse mngers working with the unemployed Author Goddrd, Richrd, Ptton, Wendy, Creed, Peter Published 2001 Journl Title Journl of Employment Counseling Copyright Sttement 2001 Americn Counseling Assocition, All Rights Reserved. First published Journl of Employment Counseling, 38 (2) pp Downloded from Link to published version Griffith Reserch Online

2 psychologicl distress in ustrlin cse mngers working with the unemployed Richrd Goddrd Wendy Ptton Peter Creed This study reports levels of psychologicl distress found in smple of Austrlin cse mngers who work with the unemployed. Using longitudinl survey methodology, 86 cse mngers employed throughout Austrli completed the 12-item Generl Helth Questionnire (GHQ 12; D. P. Goldberg, 1978) on 2 occsions during In comprison with other studies investigting psychologicl wellbeing of both employed nd unemployed individuls, cse mnger respondents in this study reported significntly higher levels of psychologicl morbidity thn levels reported for employed Austrlins nd similr morbidity levels to those reported by unemployed Austrlins. Skills trining seemed to moderte psychologicl distress levels reported by femle cse mngers. This reserch ws conducted following time of gret chnge in the wy employment services were delivered in Austrli. Historiclly, publicly funded employment services in this country hve been delivered directly by the Austrlin Federl Government through ntionl employment gency, the Commonwelth Employment Service. In response to high unemployment rtes nd the previling mood of economic rtionliztion of public expenditures, successive Austrlin Federl Governments during the 1990s hve progressively privtized the delivery of services to the unemployed. The resulting ntionl employment service is known s the Job Network, term tht encompsses diverse rnge of welfre, community, nd privte sector orgniztions now competing with ech other to ssist the unemployed in finding employment. Within the Job Network frmework, employment services re delivered to the long-term unemployed, tht is, to those individuls who hve been continuously unemployed for 12 months or more, through n individully focused service-delivery strtegy referred to s intensive ssistnce. It is the well-being of the personnel delivering intensive ssistnce to the long-term unemployed tht is the focus of this study. The Richrd Goddrd is n ssocite lecturer t the School of Lerning nd Development, nd Wendy Ptton is n ssocite professor nd cting hed of the School. Both re with the Fculty of Eduction t Queenslnd University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Austrli. Peter Creed is senior lecturer in the School of Applied Psychology t Griffith University, Gold Cost, Austrli. Correspondence regrding this rticle should be sent to Wendy Ptton, School of Lerning nd Development, Queenslnd University of Technology, Victori Prk Rod, Kelvin Grove, Qld, 4059 AUSTRALIA (e-mil: w.ptton@qut.edu.u). 50 journl of employment counseling June 2001 Volume 38

3 purpose of this study ws to investigte the current stte of the psychologicl wellbeing of personnel whose job description requires them to enter into intensive one-to-one reltionships with their unemployed clients to ssist them in gining employment. Such personnel re usully referred to s cse mngers becuse the system of support nd ssistnce they offer their clients is in keeping with the cse mngement models of service provision in socil work (Moore, 1992) nd other medicl models of service delivery from which the current Austrlin employment services model hs been developed (Hgen, 1994). At the beginning of 1999, the Job Network included 150 different orgniztions tht were offering intensive ssistnce to the more thn 240,000 long-term unemployed Austrlins seeking full-time employment (Austrlin Bureu of Sttistics, 1999). These orgniztions employ cse mngers who, collectively, deliver employment services to long-term unemployed individuls through 842 sites within Austrli. In contrst to the copious literture detiling the effects of unemployment on the well-being of Austrlin nd overses occuptionl groups (e.g., see Alltt & Yendle, 1992; Fryer & Pyne, 1986; Lenn & Feldmn, 1992; Winefield, 1995), there is very little in the wy of published work on the topic of well-being in stff who work directly with the unemployed. This point ws cknowledged by Kelvin nd Jrrett (1985) more thn decde go, nd little hs chnged since tht time. One recent exception is the empiricl investigtion of burnout in cse mngers, reported by Goddrd nd Ptton (1998). In their study, comprison of burnout levels between cse mngers nd non-cse mngers working with unemployed Austrlins in shred working environments ws presented. Here the reserchers found significntly higher levels of burnout in stff who were using personlized cse mngement pproch to ssisting clients thn in stff who were ssisting their unemployed clients by providing over-the-counter services. From the first introduction, in Mrch 1994, of cse mngement into the Austrlin system for delivering employment services to the long-term unemployed, the Austrlin government hs recognized tht service delivery effectiveness would depend on the bility of individul cse mngers to dpt to more intensive nd more comprehensive helping service thn hd ever before been the cse in Austrli (Commonwelth of Austrli, 1994). Although some reserchers hve rgued tht using uthority nd using power re the most crucil fctors in influencing the effectiveness of cse mngement (e.g., see Rubin, 1987, pp ), other reserchers suggest tht cselod size, level of trining, nd vilbility of resources re the most relevnt fctors influencing cse mnger effectiveness (Austin, 1990; Hgen, 1994). In prticulr, it hs been recognized tht effective cse mngers would be competent t mnging their role cross the five core elements of cse mngementssessment, plnning, linking, dvoccy, nd monitoring/evluting performnce (Employment Assistnce Austrli, 1995; Hgen, 1994). Approprite trining tht identifies nd teches effective mngement of these core skills could be expected both to improve cse mnger proficiencies nd to increse cse mnger feelings of self-efficcy nd well-being through the reduction of role mbiguities nd role conflicts tht typiclly rise in such multifceted roles. For exmple, trining could be expected to hve prticulrly journl of employment counseling June 2001 Volume 38 51

4 beneficil effect on cse mnger well-being through teching effective strtegies for hndling the role conflict tht inevitbly rises from inititing punitive finncil snctions ginst clients with whom the cse mnger hs been working collbortively but whose performnce hs subsequently been evluted negtively. In their recent review of subjective well-being reserch, Diener nd his couthors (Diener, Suh, Lucs, & Smith, 1999) stressed the point tht personlity is one of the strongest nd most consistent predictors of subjective well-being (p. 279). The implictions of this for reserchers in the field hve been pointed out repetedly. For exmple, Cost nd McCre (1980, 1987), McCre (1990), nd others (e.g., Brief, Burke, George, Robinson, & Webster, 1988; Ormel, 1983) hve rgued tht levels of symptom reporting in self-report surveys my be systemticlly bised through the influence of the personlity trit neuroticism on styles of perceiving nd reporting physiologicl nd psychologicl experiences. Wtson nd Clrk (1984) hve succinctly described this effect s the disposition to experience versive emotionl sttes (p. 465) nd refer to the personlity trit neuroticism s negtive ffectivity. The implictions for reserchers conducting survey investigtions in the field of well-being center round being ble to correctly interpret the results tht re obtined. McCre (1990) rgues tht mesuring neuroticism should be considered s n djunct to ny mesurement of stress, in order to provide context in which reports of stressful events nd conditions cn be interpreted (p. 240). This study follows McCre s dvice nd concurrently investigtes the personlity dimension of neuroticism in ll survey respondents. METHOD Design As prt of lrger study investigting burnout in Austrlin employment service personnel during nd fter the trnsition to new employment service delivery system, the primry objective of this study ws to contribute to the evlution of the overll stte of helth nd well-being of Austrlin Job Network personnel during For this reson, prticulr hypotheses bout overll cse mnger well-being were not stipulted; however, the study hs lso focused on the influence tht skills trining might hve on cse mnger well-being. Given the multifceted nture of the cse mnger role nd the expected contribution tht role competence nd reduced role conflict could be expected to hve on cse mnger well-being, this study hypothesized tht cse mngers who hve undertken forml skills trining will hve significntly lower men Likert scores on the 12-item Generl Helth Questionnire (GHQ 12; Goldberg, 1978), corresponding to lower distress level, thn cse mngers who indicte tht they hve not undertken such trining. Prticipnts Prticipnts were employees of employment service orgniztions whose primry role ws to provide intensive ssistnce to Austrlin individuls who hd been 52 journl of employment counseling June 2001 Volume 38

5 unemployed for more thn 12 months. Ech orgniztion ws, t the time the surveys were conducted, officilly recognized s being member of the ntionl employment service currently operting in Austrli clled the Job Network. The principl duty of ll the prticipnts in this study ws to individully ssist their unemployed clients to obtin employment. A totl of 86 cse mngers took prt in the first phse (T1) of this study by completing nd returning the survey instruments described lter in this rticle. Cse mngers surveyed t T1 hd n verge ge of 38 yers (SD = 9.70) nd hd been employed for pproximtely 29.4 months (SD = 25.45) s cse mngers. Sixty-five percent (n = 56) of the cse mngers surveyed t T1 were femle, percentge tht reflects the gender proportions typiclly found in this industry. Prticipnts were surveyed gin pproximtely 5 months fter the first survey. Eighty-one percent (n = 70) of cse mngers surveyed t T1 returned surveys during the second phse (T2). The higher percentge of women observed t T1 ws mintined t T2 (i.e., 63% women). Tble 1 summrizes generl demogrphic informtion collected t T1 nd T2. Instruments Psychologicl well-being. The current level of well-being ws ssessed using the 12-item GHQ 12 (Goldberg, 1978). This is self-dministered, point-in-time screening test, designed to detect psychitric disorders, tht hs been extensively used in vriety of occuptionl nd community settings s screening mesure for psychologicl ill helth (see Bnks et l., 1980; Bordmn, 1987; Burvill & Knuimn, 1983; Firth-Cozens, 1990). The GHQ 12 hs been vlidted for use with Austrlin TABLE 1 Demogrphic nd Worklod Vribles Reported by Cse Mnger Respondents t T1 nd T2 Vrible M SD Rnge T1 (N = 86) Age (yers) Months employed Averge weekly hours Totl cselod Active cselod T2 (N = 70) Age (yers) Months employed Averge weekly hours Totl cselod Active cselod Note. T1 = first phse of study; T2 = second phse of study. journl of employment counseling June 2001 Volume 38 53

6 respondents (Tennnt, 1977). In this study, both the binry nd Likert methods of scoring responses were used. Binry scores of 2 or more from the 12 items were tken to represent cses of psychologicl distress or morbidity. This cutoff criterion is commonly used nd reported in the literture (e.g., Tennnt, 1977). In the Likert scoring system, higher scores correspond to incresing psychologicl pthology. Goldberg nd Willims (1988) hve published n extensive presenttion of the psychometric properties of the GHQ 12 tht re more thn stisfctory. In the present study, coefficient lph ws clculted to be.92 on both occsions tht the instrument ws dministered. Neuroticism. Neuroticism ws mesured by dministering the short form of the revised Eysenck Personlity Questionnire (EPQ R/s; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1991). The EPQ R/s is 48-item instrument tht sks respondents to mke yes or no decisions on items describing behviors or responses typicl of one of four mjor dimensions of personlity. The Neuroticism subscle from this instrument contins 12 items. The technicl mnul reports cceptble relibility coefficients for this subscle,.88 for men nd.85 for women, nd discusses the vlidity of the instrument with reference to 40 yers of development of the Eysenck Personlity Scles. In the present study, coefficient lph for the Neuroticism subscle ws.78 for men nd.81 for women. Procedure Prticipnts completed the forementioned mterils s prt of lrger longitudinl study tht used postl survey to investigte cse mnger burnout. The GHQ 12 ws first dministered by mil between Mrch nd My 1999 (T1), nd gin between August nd October 1999 (T2). The EPQ R/s ws dministered t T1. RESULTS Demogrphics, Worklod Indictors, nd Gender Differences Eighty-one percent of cse mngers who returned surveys t T1 returned surveys t T2 nd stisfied the criterion tht they were still undertking cse mnger duties. No ttrition bis ws identified for 16 respondents who dropped out between the initil nd subsequent survey. Men cse mnger respondent ge, verge months employed s cse mnger, nd men cse mnger worklod indictors t both T1 nd T2 re presented in Tble 1. Univrite nlyses of vrince (ANOVAs) indicted no significnt differences between T1 nd T2 on ny of the demogrphic or worklod mesures presented in Tble 1. A further series of ANOVAs indicted no significnt gender differences on ny of demogrphic, worklod, or dependent vribles t either T1 or T2. Neuroticism Men cse mnger scores for Neuroticism were 4.23 (SD = 2.96) for men nd 4.73 (SD = 3.15) for women. These scores were consistent with the corresponding ge 54 journl of employment counseling June 2001 Volume 38

7 group norms presented in the technicl mnul (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1991; p. 23), two-tiled t tests not reching significnce t the.05 level. The Psychologicl Well-Being of Austrlin Cse Mngers Using the binry scoring criterion nd the 1/2 cutoff criterion described previously, 51% (n = 44) of cse mngers surveyed t T1 endorsed responses on the GHQ 12 indicting previling or imminent psychologicl ill helth. At T2, this percentge hd risen to 57%. However, the Wilcoxon mtched-pirs signed-rnks test indicted tht the increse ws not significnt (z = 0.69, p >.05). Tble 2 presents psychologicl morbidity cse rtes nd men GHQ 12 Likert scores for the totl smple s well s for mle nd femle cse mngers prticipting in this study. Overll men GHQ 12 Likert scores for T1 nd T2 remined t similr levels, nd brekdown by gender indicted tht observed chnges in the GHQ 12 Likert scores between T1 nd T2 were not significnt. A comprison of the cse rtes nd the men GHQ 12 Likert scores found in this study ws mde with the results of three other studies tht investigted psychologicl morbidity in other Austrlin popultion cohorts. The Austrlin Longitudinl Survey (ALS), conducted between 1985 nd 1988, systemticlly investigted psychologicl well-being of Austrlins ged 16 to 25 yers. The ALS surveyed respondents nnully nd, s result, Gretz (1993) nd others (e.g., Morrell, Tylor, Quine, Kerr, & Western, 1994) hve reported nnul psychologicl morbidity rtes for employed nd unemployed respondent subgroups from this study. A series of chi-squre tests indicted tht the cse mnger morbidity rte found in our study t T1 ws significntly higher thn the prevlence of psychologicl morbidity reported for employed respondents throughout the 4 yers of the ALS nd higher thn the cse rte reported for unemployed respondents in 2 of the 4 yers (Gretz, 1993). These comprisons re shown in Tble 2. As lredy indicted, cse mnger morbidity rtes t T2 hd risen from 51% to 57%, nd lthough this increse ws not significnt, further chi-squre tests compring morbidity cse rtes t T2 with the ALS results were conducted. Cse mnger morbidity cse rtes t T2 were found to be significntly higher thn the cse rte for unemployed ALS respondents in ll 4 yers tht the survey ws conducted. In second comprison with group of long-term unemployed Austrlin dults (Ptton & Donohue, 1998), the men GHQ 12 Likert scores for cse mngers in this study t T1 nd T2 were significntly higher, corresponding to higher psychologicl distress, thn the equivlent scores reported for the unemployed dults, t(122) = 2.29, p <.05, nd t(106) = 2.59, p <.05, two-tiled tests respectively (see Tble 2). A third comprison ws mde with the results presented in Winefield, Tiggemnn, nd Winefield s (1991) study, which compred the psychologicl impct of engging in stisfctory work with the impct of unstisfctory work nd unemployment. Men GHQ 12 Likert scores for cse mngers t both T1 nd T2 were significntly higher thn the scores reported in Winefield et l. s study for the employed workers who found their work stisfctory, t(501) = 5.70, p <.001, nd t(485) = 6.19, p <.001, journl of employment counseling June 2001 Volume 38 55

8 TABLE 2 Comprison of Cse Mnger Psychologicl Morbidity Estimted by the GHQ 12 t T1 With Levels t T2 nd Sttistics Reported by Other Austrlin Studies Level of Psychologicl Morbidity Cse Rte GHQ 12 Study Respondents % M Likert Score SD The present study T1 Mrch My 1999 Full smple (men ge 38 yers) Mle cse mngers Femle cse mngers T2 August October 1999 Full smple (men ge 38 yers) Mle cse mngers Femle cse mngers Gretz (1993); Austrlin Longitudinl Survey dt Employed throughout Surveyed in 1985 Surveyed in 1986 Surveyed in 1987 Surveyed in 1988 Unemployed throughout Surveyed in 1985 Surveyed in 1986 Surveyed in 1987 Surveyed in 1988 Ptton & Donohue (1998) Unemployed Austrlin dults Full smple (ges 19 61) Winefield et l. (1991) Young Austrlins (men ge 22.6 yers) Unemployed (men durtion months) Stisfied employed Disstisfied employed ,647 2,647 2,300 1, *** 24*** 22*** 22*** 43 ns 45 ns 38* 36** b 9.34* b 9.27*** Note. See Tble 1 Note. GHQ 12 = 12-item Generl Helth Questionnire; dshes = not reported. *p <.05. **p <.01. ***p <.001. Asymmetricl significnce. b *p <.05. ***p <.001. Twotiled significnce. Significnce levels indicte differences from GHQ 12 scores recorded by the present study t T1. 56 journl of employment counseling June 2001 Volume 38

9 two-tiled tests respectively, nd not significntly different from the scores of disstisfied workers or the unemployed (see Tble 2). Trining At T1, lmost two thirds of cse mngers surveyed (65.1%) indicted tht they hd not undertken forml skills trining course pertinent to their cse mngement duties, wheres one third indicted tht they hd undertken such trining. One respondent filed to nswer this question. A two-fctor ANOVA with gender nd skills trining s between-subject fctors nd GHQ 12 Likert scores t T1 s the dependent vrible found significnt min effects for skills trining F(1, 81) = 5.40, p <.05, nd significnt Trining Gender interction F(1, 81) = 4.18, p <.05. Post hoc nlyses indicted tht the men score of cse mngers who hd undertken trining ws significntly lower, corresponding to lower psychologicl distress, thn ws the men score for those who hd not. A brekdown of this finding by gender indicted tht trining ws ssocited with significntly lower distress levels for femle cse mngers, t(53) = 3.48, p <.001, but not for mle cse mngers. For men, trining ws ssocited with mrginlly higher, but sttisticlly equivlent, men GHQ 12 score in comprison with the men score of untrined men, t(28) = 0.65, p >.05. Tble 3 presents brekdown of men GHQ 12 Likert scores t T1 by trining nd gender. TABLE 3 Levels of Cse Mnger Skills Trining Reported by Respondents t T1 nd Concurrent Psychologicl Morbidity Levels for Mle nd Femle Cse Mngers Level of Psychologicl Morbidity GHQ 12 Forml Skills Trining Respondents M Likert Score SD No trining undertken Men Women Totl Skills trining undertken Men Women Totl Trining history not reported Note. See Tble 2 Note. journl of employment counseling June 2001 Volume 38 57

10 DISCUSSION Psychologicl Distress in Austrlin Cse Mngers The GHQ 12 is n instrument widely ccepted s relible screening tool to detect respondents who re currently suffering from or who re likely to suffer psychologicl or psychitric illness. In this study, the GHQ 12 hs identified significnt levels of psychologicl morbidity. The results ensuing from the stndrd binry scoring methodology point to high level of pthology in cse mnger personnel reltive to levels reported in other studies investigting the well-being of Austrlins. More thn one hlf (51%) of the cse mngers surveyed t T1 were identified s either suffering from, or to be t serious risk of developing, psychologicl illness. This cse rte hd incresed to 57% t T2. Although this increse ws not sttisticlly significnt, the finding is confirmtion of the stbility of the study s observtions. Comprisons of men cse mnger GHQ 12 Likert scores with those published in other studies support the conclusion tht psychologicl morbidity in the cse mnger smple is high. Men cse mnger Likert scores t both T1 nd T2 corresponded to levels commonly reported for highly stressed occuptionl groups, such s hospitl nd community-bsed mentl helth stff (Prosser et l., 1996), nd the unemployed (Ptton & Donohue, 1998; Winefield et l., 1991). The comprisons with unemployed Austrlins, presented in Tble 2, re prticulrly interesting becuse they contrst cse mnger morbidity rtes with morbidity rtes in the cse mngers primry client group, the long-term unemployed. The results presented in Tble 2 suggest higher morbidity level in cse mngers thn is commonly found in some unemployed dult popultions (Ptton & Donohue, 1998) nd sttisticlly equivlent morbidity levels to those levels reported in other unemployed popultions (Winefield et l., 1991). Such findings re consistent with explntions of psychologicl strin, in terms of the pursuit of n equlity of investments nd returns in socil exchnges, tht is hypothesized to occur in helping reltionships (Schufeli, Vn Dierendonck, & Vn Gorp, 1996). By following the dvice of McCre (1990) nd others nd concurrently investigting the stble personlity trit neuroticism, this study hs demonstrted tht the cse mnger group being investigted ws no different on the personlity dimension neuroticism thn the normtive popultion. This finding hs importnce in qulifying the results presented becuse it suggests tht the significnt psychologicl morbidity levels found in this cse mnger smple do not reflect n underlying disposition of cse mngers to interpret stressful events more negtively thn the generl popultion. Influence of Trining on Cse Mnger Distress The influence tht the presence of forml skills trining might hve on cse mnger distress levels ws prticulr interest in this investigtion. It ws hypothesized tht pproprite skills trining might be ssocited with lower morbidity levels. The 58 journl of employment counseling June 2001 Volume 38

11 results supported this hypothesis. The observtion ws expected tht the men GHQ 12 Lickert score would be significntly lower for the one third of cse mngers who reported tht they hd undertken forml cse mnger skills trining thn the men GHQ 12 Lickert score would be for the two thirds of the mngers who hd not undertken trining. Wht ws unexpected ws the interction of this result with gender. Quite unexpectedly, femle cse mngers responded to trining s hypothesized, wheres trining seemed to hve no influence on the well-being of mle cse mngers. One explntion of this finding might be tht there re differences in the roles tht mle nd femle cse mngers re expected to undertke within the Job Network. Another potentil explntion might be ssocited with systemtic differences in the trining tht is offered to men nd women. Becuse this study did not investigte prticulr skills trining progrm but relied on the cse mnger respondents to nominte whether they hd prticipted in ny forml trining or eductionl progrm tht hd content pertinent to their cse mnger duties, ll potentil explntions for the finding should remin hypotheticl nd tenttive until the finding hs been replicted. Regrdless of the explntion, methodologiclly the results reinforce the importnce of dopting reserch methodologies tht systemticlly investigte gender in investigtions into the influence of trining on well-being. Implictions for Employment Counselors The results of this study strongly suggest tht providing humn services to unemployed individuls cn result in serious levels of psychologicl distress for cse mngers. These results, s well s hving serious implictions for the on-going well-being of cse mngers working with the unemployed, hve implictions for the mngement of well-being levels in other groups of personnel who work in similr intensive, oneto-one reltionships with clients who re unemployed. In prticulr, employment counselors, n occuptionl group whose role typiclly involves the development nd mintennce of reltionships with individuls who re unemployed, my be exposed to serious risk of experiencing elevted distress levels when lrge proportion of their cselod involves counseling individuls experiencing long-term unemployment. Only systemtic investigtion of employment counselors working predominntly with the long-term unemployed will ddress this question; however, elevted stress levels re by no mens unlikely. The cse mngement role involves core ctivities, some of which ber close resemblnce to elements of problem-focused counseling strtegies such s Ivey s (1988) intentionl interview process. Furthermore, the unemployed, s group, hve repetedly been identified s experiencing higher levels of psychopthology thn societl norms (Fryer & Pyne, 1986; Winefield, 1995), suggesting tht work demnds rising from employment counseling, which focuses on this group of clients, my well be, on verge, bove the demnds of working with other client groups. On the bsis of the serious levels of psychologicl morbidity found by the present study, future reserch into the well-being of employment counselors who work with the unemployed is recommended. journl of employment counseling June 2001 Volume 38 59

12 In conclusion, this study hs investigted psychologicl distress in personnel working directly with the unemployed nd, in doing so, hs begun to ddress the derth of literture in this re. The results re indictive of significnt levels of psychologicl distress within the section of the Austrlin Job Network responsible for delivering services to one of the most severely disdvntged groups of unemployed individuls, the long-term unemployed. It is cler tht psychologicl distress in personnel delivering intensive ssistnce to the unemployed is significnt phenomenon, one tht hs serious implictions for the evlution of service designed to ssist unemployed individuls nd for the orgniztions responsible for mintining the well-being of the personnel who deliver these services. REFERENCES Alltt, P., & Yendle, S. (1992). Youth unemployment nd the fmily: Voices of disordered times. London: Routledge. Austin, C. D. (1990). Cse mngement: Myths nd relities. Fmilies in Society, 71, Austrlin Bureu of Sttistics. (1999). Lbour force survey: June Cnberr, Austrlin Cpitl Territory: Austrlin Government Publishing Service. Bnks, M. H., Clegg, C. W., Jckson, P. R., Kemp, N. J., Stfford, E. M., & Wll, T. D. (1980). The use of the Generl Helth Questionnire s n indictor of mentl helth in occuptionl studies. Journl of Occuptionl Psychology, 53, Bordmn, A. P. (1987). The Generl Helth Questionnire nd the detection of emotionl disorder by generl prctitioners: A replicted study. British Journl of Psychitry, 151, Brief, A. P., Burke, M. J., George, J. M., Robinson, B. S., & Webster, J. (1988). Should negtive ffectivity remin n unmesured vrible in the study of job stress? Journl of Applied Psychology, 73, Burvill, P. W., & Knuimn, M. W. (1983). Which version of the Generl Helth Questionnire should be used in community studies? Austrlin nd New Zelnd Journl of Psychitry, 134, Commonwelth of Austrli. (1994). Working ntion: Policies nd progrms. Cnberr, Austrlin Cpitl Territory: Austrlin Government Publishing Service. Cost, P. T., Jr., & McCre, R. R. (1980). Somtic complints in mles s function of ge nd neuroticism: A longitudinl nlysis. Journl of Behviorl Medicine, 3, Cost, P. T., Jr., & McCre, R. R. (1987). Neuroticism, somtic complints, nd disese: Is the brk worse thn the bite? Journl of Personlity, 55, Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucs, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decdes of progress. Psychologicl Bulletin, 125, Employment Assistnce Austrli. (1995). Cse mngers hndbook. Cnberr, Austrlin Cpitl Territory: Austrlin Government Printing Service. Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1991). Mnul of the Eysenck Personlity Scles (EPS Adult). London: Hodder & Stoughton. Firth-Cozens, J. (1990). Sources of stress in women junior house officers. British Medicl Journl, 301, Fryer, D. M., & Pyne, R. L. (1986). Being unemployed: A review of the literture on the psychologicl experience of unemployment. In C. L. Cooper & I. Robertson (Eds.), Interntionl review of industril nd orgnistionl psychology (pp ). Chichester, Englnd: Wiley. Goddrd, R. C., & Ptton, W. (1998). A comprison between burnout levels of cse mngement stff nd non-cse mngement stff working directly with the unemployed. In E. Crson, A. Jmrozik, & T. Winefield, (Eds.), Unemployment: Economic promise nd politicl will (pp ). Brisbne, Austrli: Austrlin Acdemic Press. 60 journl of employment counseling June 2001 Volume 38

13 Goldberg, D. P. (1978). Mnul of the Generl Helth Questionnire. Slough, Englnd: Ntionl Foundtion for Eduction Reserch. Goldberg, D. P., & Willims, P. (1988). A user s guide to the Generl Helth Questionnire. Windsor, Englnd: Ntionl Foundtion for Eduction Reserch. Gretz, B. (1993). Helth consequences of employment nd unemployment: Longitudinl evidence for young men nd women. Socil Science nd Medicine, 36, Hgen, J. L. (1994). JOBS nd cse mngement: Developments in 10 sttes. Socil Work, 39, Ivey, A. E. (1988). Intentionl interviewing nd counseling: Fcilitting client development. Pcific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Kelvin, P., & Jrrett, J. E. (1985). Unemployment: Its socil psychologicl effects. Cmbridge, Englnd: Cmbridge University Press. Lenn, C. R., & Feldmn, D. C. (1992). Coping with job loss: How individuls, orgniztions, nd communities respond to lyoffs. New York: Lexington Books. McCre, R. R. (1990). Controlling neuroticism in the mesurement of stress. Stress Medicine, 6, Moore, S. (1992). Cse mngement nd the integrtion of services: How service delivery systems shpe cse mngement. Socil Work, 37, Morrell, S., Tylor, R., Quine, S., Kerr, C., & Western, J. (1994). A cohort study of unemployment s cuse of psychologicl disturbnce in Austrlin youth. Socil Science nd Medicine, 38, Ormel, J. (1983). Neuroticism nd well-being inventories: Mesuring trits or sttes? Psychologicl Medicine, 13, Ptton, W., & Donohue, R. (1998). Coping with long-term unemployment. Journl of Community & Applied Socil Psychology, 8, Prosser, D., Johnson, S., Kuipers, E., Szmukler, G., Bebbington, P., & Thornicroft, G. (1996). Mentl helth, burnout nd job stisfction mong hospitl nd community-bsed mentl helth stff. British Journl of Psychitry, 169, Rubin, A. (1987). Cse mngement. In A. Minhn (Ed.-in-Chief), Encyclopedi of socil work, (18th ed., pp ). Silver Spring, MD: Ntionl Assocition of Socil Workers. Schufeli, W. B., Vn Dierendonck, D., & Vn Gorp, K. (1996). Burnout nd reciprocity: Towrds dul-level socil exchnge model. Work & Stress, 10, Tennnt, C. (1977). The Generl Helth Questionnire: A vlid index of psychologicl impirment in Austrlin popultions. Medicl Journl of Austrli, 2, Wtson, D., & Clrke, L. A. (1984). Negtive ffectivity: The disposition to experience versive emotionl sttes. Psychologicl Bulletin, 96, Winefield, A. H. (1995). Unemployment: Its psychologicl costs. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), Interntionl review of industril nd orgniztionl psychology (pp ). Chichester, Englnd: Wiley. Winefield, A. H., Tiggemnn, M., & Winefield, H. R. (1991). The psychologicl impct of unemployment nd unstisfctory employment in young men nd women: Longitudinl nd crosssectionl dt. British Journl of Psychology, 82, journl of employment counseling June 2001 Volume 38 61