CONTENTS. B. METHODOLOGY II 1. General Characteristics of the Method, 11; 2. The Techniques, 13

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1 FOREWORD TO STUDIES IN PREJUDICE PREFACE BY MAX HORKHEIMER V IX ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1. INTRODUCTION A. THE PROBLEM I B. METHODOLOGY II 1. General Characteristics of the Method, 11; 2. The Techniques, 13 C. PROCEDURES IN THE COLLECTION OF DATA The Groups Studied, 19; 2. The Distribution and Collection of Questionnaires, 23; 3. The Selection of Subjects for Intensive Clinical Study, 25 Xlii Ii. PART I THE MEASUREMENT OF IDEOLOGICAL TRENDS THE CONTRASTING IDEOLOGiES OF TWO COL- LEGE MEN: A PRELIMINARY VIEW R. Nevitt Sanford 3' A. INTRODUCTION 31 B. MACK: A MAN HIGH ON ETHNOCENTRISM 32 C. LARRY: A MAN LOW ON ETHNOCENTRISM 37 D. ANALYSIS OF THE TWO CASES Ideology Concerning the Jews, 41; 2. General Ethnocentrism, 43; 3. Politics, 45; 4. Religion, 52; 5. Vocation and Income, 54 11!. THE STUDY OF ANTI-SEMITIC IDEOLOGY Daniel J. Levinson 57 A. INTRODUCTION 57 B. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ANTI-SEMITISM (A-S) SCALE General Rules in Item Formulation, 59; 2. Major Subdivisions or Areas: The Subscales, 62; 3. The Total Anti- Semitism (A-S) Scale, 68 xvii

2 Xviii C. RESULTS: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SCALE 1. Reliability, 72; 2. Intercorrelations of the Subscales, 74; 3. Internal Consistency: Statistical Analysis of the Individual Items, 76 D. THE SHORT FORM OF THE A-S SCALE 83 F. VALIDATION BY CASE STUDIES: THE RESPONSES OF MACK AND LARRY ON THE A-S SCALE 89 F. DISCUSSION: THE STRUCTURE OF ANTI-SEMITIC IDEOLOGY 92 IV. THE STUDY OF ETHNOCENTRIC IDEOLOGY Daniel J. Levi nson 102 A. INTRODUCTION 102 B. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ETHNOCENTRISM (E) SCALE Major Subdivisions or Areas: The Subscales, 105; 2. The Total Ethnocentrism (E) Scale, 109 C. RESULTS: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SCALE Reliability, 112; 2. Intercorrelations Among the Subscales, 113; 3. Internal Consistency: Statistical Analysis of the Individual Items, 114; 4. Second Form of the E Scale (Form 78), 116 D. THE INCLUSION OF ANTI-SEMITISM WITHIN GENERAL ETH- NOCENTRISM The Third Form of the E Scale (Form 60), 123; 2. The Fourth Form of the E Scale (Forms 45 and 40), 127; 3. A Suggested Final E Scale, 141 E. VALIDATION BY CASE STUDIES: THE RESPONSES OF MACK AND LARRY ON THE E SCALE 143 F. CONCLUSIONS: THE STRUCTURE OF ETHNOCENTRIC IDEOLOGY 145 V. POLITICO-ECONOMIC IDEOLOGY AND GROUP MEM- BERSHIPS IN RELATION TO ETHNOCENTRISM Daniel J. Levinson 151 A. INTRODUCTION 151 B. CONSTRUCTION OF THE POLITICO-ECONOMIC CONSERVATISM (PEG) SCALE Some Maj or Trends in Contemporary Liberalism and Conservatism, 153; 2. The Initial PEC Scale (Form 78), 157; 3. The Second PEC Scale (Form 60), 163; 4. The Third PEC Scale (Forms 45 and 40), 168; 5. Discussion: Some Patterns of Contemporary Liberalism and Conservatism, 175 C. THE RELATION RETWEEN ETHNOCENTRISM AND CONSERVATISM 178 D. VALIDATION BY CASE STUDIES: THE RESPONSES OF MACK AND LARRY ON THE PEG SCALE 183

3 E. THE RELATION BETWEEN ETHNOCENTRISM AND MEMBERSHIP IN VARIOUS POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GROUPINGS 185 F. CONCLUSIONS 207 VI. ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELATION TO SOME RELI- GIOUS ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES R. Nevitt Sanford 208 A. INTRODUCTION 208 B. RESULTS Religious Group Memberships, 208; 2. "Importance" of Religion and the Church, 215; 3. Scale Items, 218 C. DISCUSSION 219 D. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 220 VII. THE MEASUREMENT OF IMPLICIT ANTIDEMO- CRA TIC TRENDS R. Nevitt Sanford, T. W. Adorno, Else Frenkel Brunswik, and Daniel I. Levinson 222 A. INTRODUCTION 222 B. CONSTRUCTION OF THE FASCISM (F) SCALE The Underlying Theory, 224; 2. The Formulation of Scale Items, 241 C. RESULTS WITH SUCCESSIVE FORMS OF THE F SCALE Statistical Properties of the Preliminary Scale (Form 78), 242; 2. Item Analysis and Revision of the Preliminary Scale, 244; 3. The Second F Scale: Form 60, 247; 4. The Third F Scale: Forms 45 and 40, 252 D. CORRELATIONS OF THE F SCALE WITH E AND WITH PEC 262 E. DIFFERENCES IN MEAN F-SCALE SCORE AMONG VARIOUS GROUPS 265 F. VALIDATION BY CASE STUDIES: THE F-SCALE RESPONSES OF MACK AND LARRY 269 G. CONCLUSION 279 VIII. ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELATION TO INTELLI- GENCE AND EDUCATION Daniel J. Levinson 280 Xix PART II PERSONALITY AS REVEALED THROUGH CLINICAL INTER VIEWS IX. THE INTER VIEWS AS AN APPROACH TO THE PREJ- UDICED PERSONALITY Else Frenkel-Brunswik 291 A. INTRODUCTION: COMPARISON OF GROUPS 291 B. SELECTION OF SUBJECTS FOR THE INTERVIEWS Basis of Selection, 294; 2. Representativeness of the

4 xx Interviewees, 295; 3. Approaching the Interviewees, 300 C. THE INTERVIEWERS 301 U. SCOPE AND TECHNIQUE OF THE INTERVIEW General Plan for the Interview, 302; 2. "Underlying" and "Manifest" Questions, 303; 3. General Instructions to the Interviewers, 303 E. THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE Vocation, 304; 2. Income, 307; 3. Religion, 310; 4. Clinical Data, 312; 5. Politics, 320; 6. Minorities and "Race," 322 F. THE SCORING OF THE INTERVIEWS Quantification of Interview Data, 325; 2. Broad Outline of Categories in the Interview Scoring Manual, 326; 3. The Interview Rating Procedure and the Raters, 327; 4. Reliability of the Interview Ratings, 328; 5. Minimizing Halo-Effects in Rating the Interviews, 333; 6. Tabulation of Interview Ratings by Categories: Statistical Significance, 334 X. PARENTS AND CHiLDHOOD AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTERVIEWS Else Frenleel-Brunswik 337 A. INTRODUCTION 337 B. ATTITUDES TOWARD PARENTS AND CONCEPTION OF THE FAMILY ; 2. Idealization vs. Objective Appraisal of Parents, 340; 3. Genuineness of Affect, 346; 4. Feelings of Victimization, 347; 5. Submission vs. Principled Independence, 350; 6. Dependence for Things vs. Dependence for Love, 353; 7. Ingroup Orientation to the Family, 356 C. CONCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD ENVIRONMENT ; 2. Image of the Father in Men: Distant and Stern vs. Relaxed and Mild, 359; 3. Image of the Father in Women: The Role of Provider, 365; 4. Image of the Mother: Sacrifice, Moralism, Restrictiveness, 366; 5. Parental Conflict, 368; 6. Father-Dominated vs. Mother- Oriented Home, 370; 7. Discipline: Harsh Application of Rules vs. Assimilation of Principles, 371 D. CHILDHOOD EVENTS AND ATTITUDES TOWARD SiBLINGS ; 2. Attitudes Toward Siblings, 377; 3. Childhood Events, 382; 4. Status Concern, 382 E. SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ON FAMILY PATTERNS 384

5 Xl. SEX, PEOPLE; AND SELF AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTER IWS Else Frenkel-Brunswik 390 A. ATTITUDE TOWARD SEX ; 2. Status via Sex, 393; 3. Moralistic Rejection of Instinctual Tendencies, 395; 4. "Pure" vs. "Bad" Women, 397; 5. Ego-Alien Ambivalence vs. "Fondness," 399; 6. Exploitive Manipulation for Power, 400; 7. Conventionality vs. Individualism, 402; 8. Summary, 404 B. ATTITUDE TOWARD PEOPLE ; 2. Moralistic Condemnation vs. Permissiveness, 406; 3. Extrapunitiveness, 409; 4. World as Jungle, 411; 5. Hierarchical vs. Equalitarian Conception of Human Relations, 413; 6. Dependence for Things, 414; 7. Manipulation vs. Libidinization of People and Genuine Work Adjustment, 415; 8. Social Status vs. Intrinsic Worth in Friendship, 418; 9. Summary, 420 C. ATFITUDE TOWARD PRESENT SELF 42 I 421; 2. Self-Glorification vs. Objective Appraisal, 423; 3. Masculinity and Femininity, 428; 4. Conventionalism and Moralism, 429; 5. Conformity of Self and Ideal, 430; 6. Denial of Sociopsychological Causation, 432; 7. Property as Extension of Self, 433 D. CONCEPTION OF CHILDHOOD SELF ; 2. "Difficult" Child, 437; 3. Blandness vs. Adult-Orientation, 438; 4. Contrasting Picture of Childhood and Present, 440; 5. Summary of Attitude Toward Present Self and Childhood Self, 440 XI!. DYNAMIC AND COGNITIVE PERSONALiTY OR- GANIZATION AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTER- VIEWS Else Frenkel-Brunswik 442 A. DYNAMIC CHARACTER STRUCTURE ; 2. Orality and Anality, 445; 3. Dependence, 449; 4. Aggression, 450; 5. Ambivalence, 451; 6. Identification, 452; 7. Superego, 454; 8. Strength of the Ego, 456; 9. Distortion of Reality, 457; 10. Physical Symptoms, 459 B. COGNITIVE PERSONALITY ORGANIZATION Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- XXI

6 Xxii XIII. suits, 461; 2. Rigidity, 461; 3. Negative Attitude Toward Science. Superstition, 464; 4. Anti-Intraceptiveness and Autism, 465; 5. Suggestibility, 467 COMPREHENSIVE SCORES AND SUMMARY OF IN- TER VIEW RESULTS Else Frenkel-Brunswik 468 A. THE DISCRIMINATORY POWERS OF THE MAJOR AREAS STUDIED Verification of Anticipated Trend by Categories, 468; 2. Composite Ratings for Seven Maj or Areas, 470 B. VALITITY OF OVER-ALL SCORES AND RATINGS OF THE INTER- VIEWS Individual Composite Score Based on AU Areas of Rating, 471; 2. Over-all Intuitive Rating and Its Agreement with the Composite Score, 472; 3. Agreement with the Questionnaire Results, 472 C. SUMMARY OF THE PERSONALITY PATTERNS DERIVED FROM THE INTERVIEWS Introduction, 473; 2. Repression vs. Awareness, 474; 3. Externalization vs. Internalization, 474; 4. Conventionalism vs. Genuineness, 476; 5. Power vs. Love-Orientation, 478; 6. Rigidity vs. Flexibility. Problems of Adjustment, 479; 7. Some Genetic Aspects, 482; 8. Cultural Outlook, 484 PART III PERSONALITY AS REVEALED THROUGH PROJECTIVE MATERIAL xlv. THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST IN THE STUDY OF PREJUDICED AND UNPREJUDICED IN- DIVIDUALS Betty Aron 489 A. TESTING PROCEDURE The Sample Tested, 490; 2. Technique of Administration, B. 493; 3. The Pictures Used, 493 METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF THE STORY PROTOCOLS 1. The Murray-Sanford Scheme, 496; 2. Thematic Analysis, C. THE T.A.T.S OF MACK AND LARRY Larry's Stories, 530; 2. Mack's Stories, 534; 3. Analysis of the Stories, 537 D. SUMMARY 543

7 XX1II XV. PROJECTIVE QUESTIONS IN THE STUDY OF PER- SONALITY AND IDEOLOGY Daniel J. Levinson 545 A. INTRODUCTION 545 B. QUANTIFICATION BY MEANS OF SCORING CATEGORIES 548 C. SCORING MANUAL: CATEGORIES OF PROJECTIVE QUESTION RESPONSE 550 IL RESULTS Reliability of Scoring, 581; 2. Proj ective Question Scores in Relation to Standing on the E Scale, 584; 3. Validation by Means of Case Studies: Mack and Larry, 592 E. CONCLUSIONS General Ego Functioning, 595; 2. Specific Properties of the Ego, 596; 3. Achievement Values vs. Conventional Values, 597; 4. The Handling of Dependency as an Underlying Trend, 599; 5. The Handling of Other Trends, 600 PART IV QUALITATIVE STUDIES OF IDEOLOGY INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 603 XVI. PREJUDICE IN THE interview MATERIAL T. W. Adorno 6o5 A. INTRODUCTION 605 B. THE "FUNCTIONAL" CHARACTER OF ANTI-SEMITISM 609 C. THE IMAGINARY FOE 612 IL ANTI-SEMITISM FOR WHAT? 617 E. TWO KINDS OF JEWS 622 F. THE ANTI-SEMITE'S DILEMMA 627 G. PROSECUTOR AS JUDGE 629 H. THE MISFIT BOURGEOIS 637 I. OBSERVATIONS ON LOW-SCORING SUBJECTS 644 J. CONCLUSION 653 XVII. POLITICS AND ECONOMICS IN THE INTERVIEW MATERIAL T. W. Adorno 654 A. INTRODUCTION 654 B. FORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF POLITICAL THINKING Ignorance and Confusion, 658; 2. Ticket Thinking and Personalization in Politics, 663; 3. Surface Ideology and Real Opinion, 671; 4. Pseudoconservatism, 675; 5. The Usurpation Complex, 685; 6. F.D.R., 689; 7. Bu-

8 XXIV reaucrats and Politicians, 693; 8. There Will Be No Utopia, 695; 9. No Pity for the Poor, 699; 10. Education Instead of Social Change, 700 C. SOME POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC TOPICS Unions, 702; 2. Business and Government, 711; 3. Political Issues Close to the Subjects, 714; 4. Foreign Policy and Russia, 718; 5. Communism, 723 XVIII. SOME ASPECTS OF RELIGIOUS IDEOLOGY AS RE- VEALED IN THE INTERViEW MATERJAL T. W. Adorno 727 A. INTRODUCTION 727 B. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 730 C. SPECIFIC ISSUES The Function of Religion in High and Low Scorers, 733; 2. Belief in God, Disbelief in Immortality, 736; 3. The Irreligious Low Scorer, 738; 4. Religious Low Scorers, 742 XIX. TYPES AND SYNDROMES T. W. Adorno 744 A. THE APPROACH 744 B. SYNDROMES FOUND AMONG HIGH SCORERS Surface Resentment, 753; 2. The "Conventional" Syndrome, 756; 3. The "Authoritarian" Syndrome, 759; 4. The Rebel and the Psychopath, 763; 5. The Crank, 765; 6. The "Manipulative" Type, 767 C. SYNDROMES FOUND AMONG LOW SCORERS The "Rigid" Low Scorer, 771; 2. The "Protesting" Low Scorer, 774; 3. The "Impulsive" Low Scorer, 776; 4. The "Easy-Going" Low Scorer, 778; 5. The Genuine Liberal, 781 PART V APPLICATIONS TO INDIVIDUALS AND TO SPECIAL GROUPS XX. GENETIC ASPECTS OF THE AUTHORITARIAN PER- SONALITY: CASE STUD1ES OF TWO CONTRASTiNG INDIVIDUALS R. Nevitt Sanford 787 A. INTRODUCTION 787 B. THE CASE OF MACK Environmental Forces and Events, 789; 2. Deeper Per-

9 sonality Needs, 794; and Attitudes, Dynamics of Surface Behavior XXV C. THE CONTRASTING CASE OF LARRY 809 Xxi. CRiMINALITY AND ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS: A STUDY OF PRISON INMATES William R. Morrow 817 A. INTRODUCTION The Problem, 817; 2. Sampling and Administration, 818; 3. Plan of Discussion, 822 B. ETHNOCENTRISM General Questionnaire Statistics and Their Significance, 823; 2. Ideology Concerning Negroes: A Submerged Outgroup, 824; 3. Ideology Concerning Jews: A Supposed "Dominant" Outgroup, 830 C. POLITICO-ECONOMIC ATTITUDES 835 D. MORALS AND RELIGION 8 E. DEFENSES AGAINST WEAKNESS 856 F. HETEROSEXUALITY 866 G. ANTI-INTRACEPTIVENESS AND CHILDHOOD 873 H. ATTITUDES TO PARENTS 875 I. "CRIMINALITY" IN HIGH AND LOW SCORERS 887 XXII. PSYCHOLOGICAL ILL HEALTH IN RELATION TO POTENTIAL FASCISM: A STUDY OF PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC PATIENTS Maria Hertz Levinson 891 A. INTRODUCTION 891 B. THE NATURE OF THE SAMPLE 892 C. STATISTICAL RESULTS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE 896 D. RELATIONSHIP OF ETHNOCENTRISM TO VARIOUS PSYCHIATRIC CLASSIFICATIONS Ethnocentrism in Relation to Neurosis and Psychosis, 904; 2. Ethnocentrism in Relation to Specific Diagnostic Categories, 906 E. ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELATION TO THE MINNESOTA MULTI- PHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY 910 F. PERSONALITY TRENDS AS REVEALED BY PATIENTS' "STATE- MENT OF PROBLEM" IN THE FIRST PSYCHIATRIC INTERVIEW Selection of Material, 918; 2. The Scoring Manual: Description of Variables, 919; 3. The Method of Quantification, 924; 4. The Reliability of the Measures, 926; 5. Relationship Between Ratings and Ethnocentrism Score, 932; 6. Summary, 941 G. CLINICAL PICTURES AND PERSONALITIES OF HIGH AND LOW SCORERS 942

10 Xxvi 1. The High Scorers, 942; 2. The Low Scorers, 951; 3. The "Middles," 959 H. CONCLUSIONS 961 XX1IJ. CONCLUSIONS 97' REFERENCES 977 INDEX 983