Animal Behavior. meerkats

Transcription

1 Animal Behavior meerkats AP Biology

2 What is behavior & Why study it? Behavior everything an animal does & how it does it response to stimuli in its environment Why study behavior? part of phenotype acted upon by natural selection lead to greater fitness greater reproductive success greater survival AP Biology

3 Proximate and Ultimate causes Two fundamental levels of analysis in the study of Animal Behavior: Proximate and Ultimate Proximate (focus on mechanics of behavior). Ultimate (focus on advantages of the behavior)

4 Proximate Questions Proximate causes of behavior are how questions Includes Sensory motor mechanism Effects of heredity on behavior Genetic-environmental interaction

5 Ultimate Cause Ultimate causes of behavior are why questions Includes Evolutionary significance Utility of behavior in terms of reproductive success

6 Proximate Questions Example male songbird what triggers singing? how does he sing? Male songbirds sing during the breeding season as a response to a high level of testosterone which binds to hormone receptors in the brain & triggers the production of song. AP Biology

7 Ultimate Cause Question male songbird Why does he sing? Ultimate cause example evolutionary significance The male sings to defend territory from other males & to attract a female with which to reproduce. This is the evolutionary explanation for the male s vocalization. AP Biology

8 Proximate cause example Proximate vs. Ultimate The red crowned cranes, like many animals, breed in spring and early summer. A proximate question about the timing of breeding by this species might be, How does day length influence breeding by red crowned cranes? A reasonable hypothesis for the proximate cause of this behavior is that breeding is triggered by the effect of increased day length on an animal s production of and responses to particular hormones. Indeed, experiments with various animals demonstrate that lengthening daily exposure to light produces neural and hormonal changes that induce behavior associated with reproduction, such as singing and nest building in birds. Ultimate cause example In contrast to proximate questions, ultimate questions address the evolutionary significance of a behavior. Ultimate questions take such forms as, Why did natural selection favor this behavior and not a different one? Hypotheses addressing why questions propose that the behavior increases fitness in some particular way. A reasonable hypothesis for why the red crowned crane reproduces in spring and early summer is that breeding is most productive at that time of year. For instance, at that time, parent birds can find ample food for rapidly growing offspring, providing an advantage in reproductive success compared to birds that breed in other seasons.

9 Ethology pioneers in the study of animal behavior Karl von Frisch Niko Tinbergen Konrad Lorenz AP Biology

10 Types of behaviors Innate behaviors inherited or developmentally fixed despite different environments, all individuals exhibit the behavior Learned behaviors develop during animal s lifetime modified by experience AP Biology

11 Innate behavior Fixed action patterns (FAP) sequence of behaviors essentially unchangeable & usually conducted to completion once started FAP are triggered by sign stimuli male sticklebacks have red underbelly. They exhibit aggressive territoriality and attack other male sticklebacks.

12 Supernormal stimulus Ecologist like Tinergen identified stimulus which triggered certain behavioral response.and then made an interesting discovery. They could create greatly exaggerated models which the animals would choose instead of a realistic alternative (The instincts had no bound!)

13 Seeing red, male stickleback fish would ignore real rivals to attack wooden replicas with brightly painted underbellies.

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15 Do humans exhibit Fixed Action Patterns? The eyebrow-flash Eibl-Eibesfeldt took these pictures of a Himba woman from Namibia (SW-Africa). She shows a rapid brow raising (between the second and third still images) which coincides with raising her eyelids. Because all the cultures he examined showed this behavior, Eibl-Eibesfeldt concluded that it was a human 'universal' or Fixed Action Pattern.

16 Fixed Action Patterns (FAP) Digger wasp Some Sphex wasps drop a paralyzed insect near the opening of the nest. Before taking provisions into the nest, the sphex first inspects the nest, leaving the prey outside. During the sphex's inspection of the nest an experimenter can move the prey a few inches away from the opening of the nest. When the sphex emerges from the nest ready to drag in the prey, it finds the prey missing. The sphex quickly locates the moved prey, but now its behavioral "program" has been reset. After dragging the prey back to the opening of the nest, once again the sphex is compelled to inspect the nest, so the prey is again dropped and left outside during another stereotypical inspection of the nest. This iteration can be repeated again and again, with the sphex never seeming to notice what is going on, never able to escape from its genetically-programmed sequence of behaviors.

17 Innate Behavior: Directed movements Taxis change in direction automatic movement toward (positive taxis) or away from (negative taxis) a stimulus phototaxis chemotaxis

18 Innate Behavior: Kinesis Kinesis change in activity in response to a stimulus. The sow bugs become more active in dry areas and less active in humid areas. Though sow bugs do not move toward or away from specific conditions, their increased movement under dry conditions increases the chance that they will leave a dry area and encounter a moist area. And since they slow down in a moist area, they tend to stay there once they encounter it. In contrast to a kinesis, a taxis is a more or less automatic, oriented movement toward (a positive taxis) or away from (a negative taxis) some stimulus.

19 Innate Behavior : Migration Bird Migration is a regular, long-distance change in location migratory restlessness is seen in birds bred & raised in captivity Sandpiper Monarch migration Bobolink ancient flyways Golden plover

20 Bird Migration, is a behavior that is largely under genetic control Environmental cues can trigger movement in a particular direction Animals can orient themselves using The position of the sun and their circadian clock, an internal 24-hour clock that is an integral part of their nervous system The position of the North Star The Earth s magnetic field 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

21 Migration Each spring, migrating western sandpipers (Calidris mauri), migrate from their wintering grounds, which may be as far south as Peru, to their breeding grounds in Alaska. In the autumn, they return to the wintering grounds. AP Biology

22 Innate Behavior: Behavioral Rhythms Some animal behavior is affected by the animal s circadian rhythm, a daily cycle of rest and activity Behaviors such as migration and reproduction are linked to changing seasons, or a circannual rhythm Daylight and darkness are common seasonal cues Some behaviors are linked to lunar cycles, which affect tidal movements. European badgers pee more Pearson Education, Inc.

23 CIRCADIAN RYTHMS: Under genetic Control

24 Biological Clock Regulation Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are examples of circadian rhythms, daily cycles of biological activity Mammalian circadian rhythms rely on a biological clock, molecular mechanism that directs periodic gene expression Biological clocks are typically synchronized to light and dark cycles 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

25 In mammals, circadian rhythms are coordinated by a group of neurons in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) The SCN acts as a pacemaker, synchronizing the biological clock 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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27 Biological Rhythms

28 Peripheral Oscillator - circadian oscillators in peripheral tissues (e.g. liver and kidney) Peripheral cells from mammalian tissues, while perfectly capable of circadian rhythm generation, are not light sensitive and thus are signalled by nonphotic cues. Feeding time is the dominant cue for peripheral mammalian clocks

29 Photoperiodism - Photoperiodism is illustrated by how plants flower and grow at certain times of the day or year through the use of photoreceptors that sense the wavelengths of sunlight available during the day (versus night) and throughout the seasons.

30 Photoperiodism

31 Innate behavior, linked to lunar cycle European badgers pee more often during the new moon than the full moon. The badgers use this move to mark territory, especially when they are getting ready to mate. And the new moon seems to be prime time for badger mating, with scientists suggesting the increased darkness provides the badger couple protection from lurking predators. Pairs of badgers can take up to 90 minutes to mate, and become easier targets during that time. So the pee pattern may seem to be a loony habit, it appears to have a practical root in self defense.

32 Imprinting: Combination of innate and learned behavior Imprinting is a behavior that includes learning and innate components and is generally irreversible It is distinguished from other learning by a sensitive period A sensitive period is a limited developmental phase that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

33 Imprinting: Combination of innate and learned behavior Konrad Lorenz Konrad Lorenz

34 Imprinting But how do the young know on whom or what to imprint? How do young geese know that they should follow the mother goose? The tendency to respond is innate in the birds; the outside world provides the imprinting stimulus, something to which the response will be directed. Experiments with many species of waterfowl indicate that they have no innate recognition of mother. They respond to and identify with the first object they encounter that has certain key characteristics. In classic experiments done in the 1930s, Konrad Lorenz showed that the most important imprinting stimulus in graylag geese is movement of an object away from the young. When incubator hatched goslings spent their first few hours with Lorenz rather than with a goose, they imprinted on him, and from then on, they steadfastly followed him and showed no recognition of their biological mother or other adults of their own species. Again, there are both proximate and ultimate explanations

35 Conservation Conservation biologists have taken advantage of imprinting by young whooping cranes as a means to teach the birds a migration route. A pilot wearing a crane suit in an Ultralight plane acts as a surrogate parent. teaching cranes to migrate Wattled crane conservation AP Biology

36 Imprinting Cranes also imprint as hatchlings, creating both problems and opportunities in captive rearing programs designed to save endangered crane species. For instance, a group of 77 endangered whooping cranes hatched and raised by sandhill cranes imprinted on the sandhill foster parents; none of these whooping cranes ever formed a mating pair bond with another whooping crane. As a consequence, captive breeding programs now isolate young cranes and expose them to the sights and sounds of members of their own species. But imprinting can also be used to aid crane conservation Young whooping cranes imprinted on humans in crane suits have been taught to follow these parents flying ultralight aircraft along new migration routes. And importantly, such cranes have formed mating pair bonds with other whooping cranes. AP Biology

37 Critical period - Sensitive phase for optimal imprinting Subsong - equivalent to a human baby's babbling Plastic song - The song begins to take on the sounds of an adult, with normal phrases intermingled with babbling.

38 As a brood parasite, the Cuckoo never learn the song of their species as a nestling. Song development is totally innate. imprinting in humans?

39 Learned Behavior: Associative Learning In associative learning, animals associate one feature of their environment with another For example, a white-footed mouse will avoid eating caterpillars with specific colors after a bad experience with a distasteful monarch butterfly caterpillar

40 Associative learning can be classified into two types 1. classical conditioning Pavlovian conditioning associate a neutral stimulus with a significant stimulus 2. operant conditioning trial & error learning associate behavior with reward or punishment

41 Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov s experiment with dogs

42 Classical conditioning Ivan Pavlov s dogs - a dog that repeatedly hears a bell before being fed will salivate in anticipation at the bell s sound connect reflex behavior (salivating at sight of food) to associated stimulus (ringing bell)

43 Operant conditioning Skinner box B. F. Skinner mouse learns to associate behavior (pressing lever) with reward (food pellet) AP Biology

44 Operant Conditioning a white-footed mouse will avoid eating caterpillars with specific colors after a bad experience with a distasteful monarch butterfly caterpillar

45 Loss of response to stimulus cry-wolf effect Habituation learn not to respond to repeated occurrences of stimulus Gorillas have become habituated to tourists in some locations.

46 Thinking & problem-solving Do other animals think? problem-solving tool use crow AP Biology

47 Animal Signals and Communication In behavioral ecology, a signal is a behavior that causes a change in another animal s behavior. Examples of Signals are: Pheromones Visual signals Auditory signals Nocturnal animals, such as most terrestrial mammals, depend on olfactory and auditory communication Diurnal animals, such as humans and most birds, use visual and auditory communication

48 Pheromones Many animals that communicate through odors emit chemical substances called pheromones Pheromones can be effective at very low concentrations 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

49 Pheromone examples A female moth can attract a male moth several kilometers distant A honeybee queen produces a pheromone that affects the development and behavior of female workers and male drones When a minnow or catfish is injured, an alarm substance in the fish s skin disperses in the water, inducing a fright response among fish in the area 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

50 Pheromones Female mosquito use CO 2 concentrations to locate victims marking territory Spider using moth sex pheromones, as allomones, to lure its prey The female lion lures male by spreading sex pheromones, but also by posture & movements AP Biology

51 Pheremones The luring function of sex pheromones is a perfect way for predators to get heir prey without having to work too hard. The spider Mastophora hutchinsoni spreads sex pheromones of moths, using them as allomones. This way he can lure about enough moths to sustain. When the moths fly in, convinced they are about to mate, the spider shoots a sticky ball on wire towards them. As they stick to the ball, he drags them in and eats them. AP Biology

52 Pheromones Human pheromones? AP Biology

53 Visual Signal Honey bee communication dance to communicate location of food source waggle dance

54 Auditory Signal: Communication by song Bird song species identification & mating ritual mixed learned & innate critical learning period Insect song mating ritual innate, genetically controlled Red-winged blackbird AP Biology

55 Foraging Behavior Natural selection refines behaviors that enhance the efficiency of feeding Foraging, or food-obtaining behavior, includes recognizing, searching for, capturing, and eating food items 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

56 Optimal Foraging Model Optimal foraging model views foraging behavior as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and costs of obtaining food The costs of obtaining food include energy expenditure and the risk of being eaten while foraging Natural selection should favor foraging behavior that minimizes the costs and maximizes the benefits 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

57 Optimal foraging behavior is demonstrated by the Northwestern crow A crow will drop a whelk (a mollusc) from a height to break its shell and feed on the soft parts The crow faces a trade-off between the height from which it drops the whelk and the number of times it must drop the whelk 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

58 Researchers determined experimentally that the total flight height (which reflects total energy expenditure) was minimized at a drop height of 5 m The average flight height for crows is 5.23 m 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

59 Average number of drops l flight height (number of drops drop height in Figure Average number of drops 75 Total flight height Drop height preferred by crows 5.23 m Drop height (m) 50 25

60 Mating Behavior and Mate Choice Mating behavior includes seeking or attracting mates, choosing among potential mates, competing for mates, and caring for offspring Mating relationships define a number of distinct mating systems The mating relationship between males and females varies greatly from species to species 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

61 In many species, mating is promiscuous, with no strong pair-bonds or lasting relationships In monogamous relationships, one male mates with one female. Males and females with monogamous mating systems have similar external morphologies Species with polygamous mating systems are usually sexually dimorphic: males and females have different external morphologies. Polygamous relationships can be either polygynous or polyandrous In polygyny, one male mates with many females. The males are usually more showy and larger than the females In polyandry, one female mates with many males. The females are often more showy than the males

62 Altruistic behavior - reduces individual fitness but increases fitness of other individuals in the population Blue jay gives warning alarm call to other blue jays on seeing a predator and ends up getting predator s attention. Belding ground squirrel AP Biology

63 kin selection The natural selection that favors this kind of altruistic behavior by enhancing reproductive success of relatives is called kin selection Belding ground squirrel I would lay down my life for 2 brothers or 8 cousins! How can this be of adaptive value?

64 Belding Ground Squirrel

65 BioMagnification Energy pyramid toxins concentrate as they move up the food chain AP Biology

66 BioMagnification PCBs General Electric manufacturing plant on Hudson River PCBs in sediment striped bass nesting areas AP Biology

67 CO 2 NO x methane AP Biology

68 Ozone Depletion ozone protects from UV rays CFCs (chlorofloro carbon) found in coolants AP Biology

69 AP Biology Ozone Depletion

70 Deforestation Loss of habitat Loss of biodiversity Loss of stability AP Biology

71 Loss of Diversity 3 levels of biodiversity genetic diversity inbreeding with shrinking populations community diversity mix of species ecosystem diversity different habitats across landscape All decreased by human activity AP Biology

72 Why is genetic diversity important? In case of environmental disturbance or change, organisms that are genetically diverse would have different capabilities to withstand it. Genetic diversity ensures that some of the organisms will be able to survive and reproduce. If all organisms in a species are clone of each other, a single pathogen will be able to wipe all of them leading to extinction of their species.

73 16-1 Genes and Variation Slide 73 of 24 Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall End Show

74 Overexploitation North Atlantic bluefin tuna AP Biology Loss of food resource for higher levels on food chain Loss of biodiversity Loss of keystone species? Loss of stability

75 Earth s biomes AP Biology

76 Environmental factors Abiotic factors non-living chemical & physical factors temperature light water nutrients Biotic factors living components animals plants AP Biology

77 Marine benthos coral reef AP Biology intertidal

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79 Marine Ecosystem Zones Intertidal zone - is where the ocean meets the land sometimes it is submerged and at other times exposed, as waves and tides come in and out. Littoral zone alternate name for intertidal zone. Continental shelf is underwater landmass formed from the edge of a continent that lies under the ocean.

80 Marine Ecosystem Zones Pelagic zone - The pelagic zone includes those waters further from the land, basically the open ocean. Neritic zone is the subdivision of pelagic zone. It is relatively shallow ocean that extends to the edge of the continental shelf. Net productivity here depends on planktonic algae growing as deep as the light can reach. Oceanic zone, a subdivision of pelagic zone, is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live.

81 Marine Ecosystem Zones Benthic zone - is the area below the pelagic zone, but does not include the very deepest parts of the ocean. Abyssal zone - The bottom of the ocean basins. This dark region is largely inhabited by sparse populations of bottom-dwelling organisms that make up the benthos. These are consumers and decomposers who depend on the organic matter drifting down from the upper portions of the sea.

82 Tropical rainforest AP Biology distribution: equatorial precipitation: very wet temperature: always warm characteristics: many plants & animals, thin soil

83 Savanna AP Biology distribution: equatorial precipitation: seasonal, dry season/wet season temperature: always warm characteristics: fire-adapted, drought tolerant plants; herbivores; fertile soil

84 Desert AP Biology distribution: 30 N & S latitude band precipitation: almost dry temperature: variable daily & seasonally, hot & cold characteristics: sparse vegetation & animals, cacti, succulents, drought tolerant, reptiles, insects, rodents, birds

85 Temperate Grassland AP Biology distribution: mid-latitudes, mid-continents precipitation: seasonal, dry season/wet season temperature: cold winters/hot summers characteristics: prairie grasses, fire-adapted, drought tolerant plants; many herbivores; deep, fertile soil

86 Temperate Deciduous Forest AP Biology distribution: mid-latitude, northern hemisphere precipitation: adequate, summer rains, winter snow temperature: moderate warm summer/cool winter characteristics: many mammals, insects, birds, etc.; deciduous trees; fertile soils

87 Coniferous Forest (Taiga) AP Biology distribution: high-latitude, northern hemisphere precipitation: adequate to dry temperature: cool year round characteristics: conifers; diverse mammals, birds, insects, etc.

88 Chaparral AP Biology distribution: coastal mid-latitude precipitation: seasonal, dry summer/rainy winter temperature: hot summer/cool winter characteristics: scrubby vegetation, drought-adapted, fireadapted, herbivores, amphibians, birds, insects

89 Arctic Tundra AP Biology distribution: arctic, high-latitude, northern hemisphere precipitation: dry temperature: cold year round characteristics: permafrost, lichens & mosses, migrating animals & resident herbivores

90 Alpine Tundra AP Biology distribution: high elevation at all latitudes precipitation: dry temperature: cold year round characteristics: permafrost, lichens, mosses, grasses; migrating animals & resident herbivores

91 Fragmented habitat Loss of habitat Loss of food resource for higher levels on food chain Loss of biodiversity Loss of stability AP Biology

92 Biodiversity hot spots AP Biology Restoration projects