Operant Condi-oning. Cogni-on and Problem Solving. Cogni-on and Problem Solving. Cogni-on. a process of knowing

Transcription

1 Operant condi-oning a type of associa,ve learning in which an animal learns to associate one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment It is also called trial- and- error learning Example a rat that is fed a<er pushing a lever Example will learn to push the lever in order to receive food a predator may learn to avoid a specific type of prey Operant Condi-oning associated with a painful experience Cogni-on and Problem Solving Cogni-on a process of knowing that may include awareness, reasoning, recollec,on, and judgment Example honeybees can dis,nguish same from different Cogni-on and Problem Solving Problem solving The process of devising a strategy to overcome an obstacle Example Chimpanzees can stack boxes in order to reach suspended food Some animals learn to solve problems by observing other individuals Example Young chimpanzees learn to crack palm nuts with stones by copying older chimpanzees 1

2 Animal behavior Experience and Behavior Is governed by complex interac,ons between gene,c and environmental factors Cross- fostering studies help behavioral ecologists to iden,fy the contribu,on of environment to an animal s behavior Places the young from one species in the care of adults from another species Experience and Behavior Studies of California mice and white- footed mice have uncovered an influence of social environment on aggressive and parental behaviors Cross- fostered mice developed some behaviors that were consistent with their foster parents Regulatory Genes and Behavior A regulatory gene can control behaviors ie - a single gene controls many behaviors of the male fruit fly courtship ritual Mul,ple independent genes can contribute to a single behavior green lacewings courtship song is unique to each species mul,ple independent genes govern different components of the courtship song EXPERIMENT SOUND RECORDINGS Chrysoperla plorabunda parent: Volley period Standard repeating unit crossed with Vibration volleys Chrysoperla johnsoni parent: Volley period Standard repeating unit RESULTS F 1 hybrids, typical phenotype: Volley period Standard repeating unit 2

3 Influence of Single- Locus Varia-on Differences at a single locus can some,mes have a large effect on behavior Example male prairie voles pair- bond with their mates while male meadow voles do not The level of a specific receptor for a neurotransmimer determines which behavioral pamern develops In Drosophila melanogaster Evolu-on of Foraging Behavior varia,on in a gene dictates foraging behavior in the larvae Larvae with one allele travel farther while foraging than larvae with the other allele Larvae in high- density popula,ons benefit from foraging farther for food while larvae in low- density popula,ons benefit from short- distance foraging Mean path length (cm) Low population density High population density R1 R2 R3 K1 K2 K3 D. melanogaster lineages Op-mal foraging model views foraging behavior as a compromise between benefits of nutri,on and costs of obtaining food costs include energy expenditure and the risk of being eaten while foraging Natural selec,on should favor foraging behavior that minimizes the costs and maximizes the benefits Op-mal Foraging Model 3

4 Op,mal foraging behavior Op-mal Foraging Model is demonstrated by the Northwestern crow A crow will drop a whelk (a mollusk) from a height to break its shell and feed on the so< parts The crow faces a trade- off between the height from which it drops the whelk and the number of,mes it must drop the whelk Average number of drops Average number of drops 75 Total flight height Drop height preferred 50 by crows = 5.23 m Drop height (m) Total flight height (number of drops drop height in m) Balancing Risk and Reward Risk of preda,on affects foraging behavior Example mule deer are more likely to feed in open forested areas where they are less likely to be killed by cougars Ma,ng behavior Ma-ng Systems and Parental Care Includes seeking or amrac,ng mates, choosing among poten,al mates, and compe,ng for mates Large varia,on among species In many species, ma,ng is promiscuous with no strong pair- bonds or las,ng rela,onships In monogamous rela,onships one male mates with one female Males and females with monogamous ma,ng systems have reduced sexual dimorphism (a) Monogamous species 4

5 Ma-ng Systems and Parental Care In polygamous rela-onships an individual of one sex mates with several individuals of the other sex usually sexually dimorphic Polygamous rela,onships polygyny can be either polygynous or polyandrous one male mates with many females Males usually more showy/larger than females (b) Polygynous species Polyandry - rare one female mates with many males Females more showy than males (c) Polyandrous species Ma-ng Systems and Parental Care Needs of the young are an important factor constraining evolu,on of ma,ng systems Consider bird species where chicks need a con,nuous supply of food A male maximizes his reproduc,ve success by staying with his mate, and caring for his chicks (monogamy) Ma-ng Systems and Parental Care Consider bird species where chicks are soon able to feed and care for themselves A male maximizes his reproduc,ve success by seeking addi,onal mates (polygyny) paternity for each egg depends on ma,ng behavior 5

6 Ma-ng Systems and Parental Care Paternal certainty is rela,vely low in species with internal fer,liza,on because ma,ng and birth are Eggs separated over,me much higher when egg laying and ma,ng occur together as in external fer,liza,on In species with external fer,liza,on parental care is at least as likely to be by males as by females altruism Altruism When animals behave in ways that reduce their individual fitness but increase the fitness of others Example - under threat from a predator an individual Belding s ground squirrel will make an alarm call to warn others but increases chances caller is killed Altruism In naked mole rat popula,ons Non- reproduc,ve individuals may sacrifice their lives protec,ng their reproduc,ve queen and kings from predators 6

7 Inclusive Fitness Altruism can be explained by inclusive fitness Inclusive fitness the total effect an individual has on prolifera,ng its genes by producing offspring and helping close rela,ves produce offspring William Hamilton Hamilton s Rule and Kin Selec-on proposed a quan,ta,ve measure for predic,ng when natural selec,on would favor altruis,c acts among related individuals Three key variables in an altruis,c act: Parent A OR Parent B Benefit to the recipient (B) Cost to the altruist (C) Coefficient of relatedness 1 / 2 (0.5) 1 / 2 (0.5) probability probability Sibling 1 Sibling 2 the frac,on of genes that, on average, are shared; r Hamilton s Rule and Kin Selec-on Natural selec,on favors altruism when: rb > C This inequality is called Hamilton s rule Kin selec-on the natural selec,on that favors this kind of altruis,c behavior by enhancing reproduc,ve success of rela,ves 7

8 reciprocal altruism Reciprocal Altruism Altruis,c behavior toward unrelated individuals can be adap,ve if the aided individual returns the favor in the future Limited to species with stable social groups where individuals meet repeatedly and cheaters who don t reciprocate are punished has been used to explain altruism between unrelated individuals in humans Social learning Social Learning learning through the observa,on of others forms the roots of culture Culture system of informa,on transfer through observa,on or teaching influences behavior of individuals in a popula,on Culture can alter behavior and influence the fitness of individuals You should now be able to: 1. State Tinbergen s four ques,ons and iden,fy each as a proximate or ul,mate causa,on 2. Dis,nguish between the following pairs of terms: kinesis and taxis, circadian and circannual behavioral rhythms, landmarks and cogni,ve maps, classical and operant condi,oning 3. Suggest a proximate and an ul,mate cause for imprin,ng in newly hatched geese 4. Explain how associa,ve learning may help a predator avoid toxic prey 5. Describe how cross- fostering experiments help iden,fy the rela,ve importance of environmental and gene,c factors in determining specific behaviors 6. Describe op,mal foraging theory 7. Define and dis,nguish among promiscuous, monogamous, and polygamous ma,ng systems 8. Describe how the certainty of paternity may influence the development of ma,ng systems 9. Dis,nguish between intersexual and intrasexual selec,on 10. Define altruis,c behavior and relate the coefficient of relatedness to the concept of altruism 11. Dis,nguish between kin selec,on and reciprocal altruism 12. Define social learning and culture 8