Culture and Gender Culture and Health. Chapter 6, 7

Transcription

1 Culture and Gender Culture and Health Chapter 6, 7

2 Parallels between impact of gender and culture on psychology Psychological research years ago conducted on men which raised questions about whether it was applicable to women Women were included as participants Research on gender differences Similar for research on cultural differences

3 Definitions Sex: biological and physiological differences between men and women Sex roles Sexual identity Gender: behaviors or patterns of activities that society or culture deems appropriate for men and women Gender roles Gender identity Gender stereotypes

4 The Relationship between Sex and Gender across Cultures Differences in sex roles exist universally Georgas et al. (2006) study on 27 countries found that women did most of housework Fathers concerned with finances, expressive issues, childcare in all countries Mothers concerned with childcare only in lessaffluent countries Cultures differ in type and differentiation encouraged between sexes; gender, gender roles, gender-role ideologies and gender stereotypes

5 Culture and Gender Stereotypes Williams and Best (1982) study of 30 countries found high pancultural agreement on adjectives( 형용사 ) used to describe males and females In all countries, adjectives associated with men were rated as being stronger and more active Japan and South African rated male characteristics as more favorable; Italy and Peru rated female characteristics more favorable

6 Culture and Gender Stereotypes Follow up studies by Williams and colleagues These studies show gender stereotypes around the world are stable Men viewed as active, strong, critical, conscientious, extraverted, and open Women viewed passive, weak, nurturing, adaptive, agreeable, and neurotic

7 Culture and Gender Stereotypes Other studies support William and Best studies examination of how gender stereotypes develop Many unanswered questions remain How congruent( 적합한가?) are behavior with stereotypes and does this congruence differ across cultures? Are stereotypes related to important psychological constructs or behaviors?

8 Culture, Gender-Role Ideology, and Self-Concept Gender-role ideology: judgments about what males and females ought to be like or ought to do Williams and Best (1990) study on 14 countries Highly egalitarian( 평등주의자 ): Netherlands, Germany and Finland Highly traditional: Nigeria, Pakistan and India

9 Culture, Gender-Role Ideology, and Self-Concept Gibbons and colleagues (1990) study on adolescents Adolescents from wealthier and more individualistic countries were less traditional Gender ideologies may be changing as societies change Religion may play a role in keeping with traditional gender roles

10 Hofstede s Study Masculinity versus Femininity: degree to which culture will foster, encourage, or maintain differences between males and females Highly masculine: Japan, Austria, Venezuela, Italy Low masculine: Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden Masculine and feminine cultures differ in sexuality and attitudes toward religion

11 Perceptual/Spatial/Cognitive Differences Common American folklore is that males better at mathematical and spatial reasoning tasks and females better at verbal comprehension tasks This is not necessarily true for other cultures No gender difference in spatial abilities in Inuit culture in Canada and Ecuador (women engage in tasks that require spatial abilities) Males did better in tight, sedentary( 정착된 ), and agriculturally based cultures Females did better in loose, nomadic( 유목의 ), and hunting and gathering based cultures

12 Conformity and Obedience Common gender-role stereotypes is that females more conforming and obedient than males This is not necessarily true for other cultures In tighter cultures, females more conformists than males In looser cultures, less gender difference in conformity or males more conformists

13 Aggressiveness Common gender-role stereotypes is that males more aggressive than females Support for this stereotype in many cultures In study of physical aggression between partners in 52 countries In developed Western cultures, both sexes committed aggression In individualistic, women empowered cultures, less female victimization( 여성희생 ) Social role theory

14 Aggressiveness Many cultures did not show sex-related differences in teaching about aggression to children Currently the mechanism accounting for gender differences in aggression unknown Biology, culture, gender marking behavior

15 Gender Roles Androgyny( 양성성 ): gender identity involving endorsement of both male and female characteristics African-American males and females more androgynous than European males and females Adolescent girls in US, Israel, and Hong Kong adopting androgynous identity have higher self acceptance than feminine or masculine girls; for boys, masculine identity have highest self acceptance

16 Gender Roles Traditional gender roles for Asian Americans, Mexican Americans and Native Americans Loosening of rigid gender roles for Asians and Mexican Americans Concept of machismo( 남성우월주의 ) and wider acceptable roles for Latina women Gender role differentiation dependent on patriarchal or matriarchal nature of tribal culture of origin for Native Americans

17 Sex and Sexuality Cultures differ on degree of importance placed on chastity( 순결 ) for women and sexuality Attitudes toward sex and sexuality related to cultural values of honor Culture affects practice of male circumcision( 남성할례, 포경수술 ) and female genital mutilation( 여성할례, 음핵제거 ) Female genital mutilation is tied with honor and virtue in some cultures

18 Mate Selection, Mate Poaching( 채가기 ), and Jealousy Gender differences in preferences for mate and sexual jealousy are universal Males more jealous of sexual infidelity( 부정 ) Females more jealous of emotional infidelity Evolutionary model

19 Personality Universally, woman reported higher scores on Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and Openness to Feelings Men scored higher on Assertiveness, and Openness to ideas Differences between men and women largest in Europe and US

20 Changes in culture bring about changes in gender roles This has both positive (e.g., women more economically independent) and negative consequences (e.g., higher divorce rates and higher health problems for women)

21 Health is defined by World Health Organization as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity In US, views of health influenced by biomedical model of health and disease Disease results from specific, identifiable cause (pathogens 병균 ) originating from inside the body

22 Other cultures have different definitions of health In China and Greece, health is viewed as absence of negative states AND presence of positive states In many Asian cultures, an integral part of health is balance between self and nature and across individual s various roles in life Chinese concept of ying and yang ( 음과양 )

23 In US, definition of health changing to include presence of positive states Hardiness Concept of health differ within a pluralistic culture( 다원적문화 ) like US and Canada To Native Americans good health is living in harmony with oneself and environment

24 Cultures have different metaphors for how human body conceptualized Balance and imbalance in body Cultures affect perception and evaluation of body shapes Social class and preference for thinness in American and European cultures Ugandans and African Americans preference for fuller figures

25 Unemployment, goal frustration, stress, bereavement( 사별 ), pessimistic explanatory styles, hardiness, perception of one s SES and perceived racism and discrimination Psychosocial Determinants of Healthy and Disease Relationship between mental and physical health Type A personality and cardiovascular( 심장혈관 ) disease Relationship between psychosocial factors and health/diseases states

26 Psychosocial Determinants of Healthy and Disease Perceived racism and discrimination contributes to poor health outcomes like hypertension( 고혈압 ) and cardiovascular( 심장혈관 ) disease African American women more psychologically stressed because of perceived racism than European American women

27 Social Isolation and Mortality( 사망 ) Relationship between social isolation or social support and death Alameda County study showed that individuals with fewest social ties had highest mortality rate and those with most social ties had lowest rate Intimate social contact in US has declined in past two decades, which has negative implications for health and well-being

28 Individualism and Cardiovascular( 심혈관 ) Disease Relationship between Individualism and heart disease (Triandis et al., 1988) Most individualistic group (European Americans) had highest rate of heart disease Social support or isolation explains these results because collectivistic cultures have stronger and deeper social ties with others than individualistic cultures

29 Culture and Eating Disorders Cultural differences in attitudes about ideal body weight Americans have more anti-overweight attitudes than Ghanaians and Mexican-Americans Cultural differences in attitudes about eating behaviors European Americans reported greater levels of disordered eating and dieting behaviors than Asian and African Americans Exposure to Western cultures related to disturbed eating attitudes and eating disorders

30 Culture and Eating Disorders US has the highest percentage of obese( 비만 ) school aged children Due to consumption of fast food and soft drinks and lack of exercise

31 Culture molds attitudes, beliefs, and values about illness and treatment Japanese and American women differed in attribution about cause of osteoporosis( 골다공증 ) and compliance with invasive treatment( 외과치료 ) Two tribes in Africa had different attitudes toward epilepsy( 간질 ), which influenced treatment approaches Witchcraft( 마법 ) in Tanzania affected helpseeking behaviors in regards to malaria Acculturation of Asian Americans affected views of health and type of treatment sought

32 Differences in Health Care and Medical Delivery Systems Cultures have different health care systems Influenced by social and economic development, technological advances, availability and influence of neighboring countries and social trends Type of health care systems Entrepreneurial( 기업 ) Welfare-oriented( 복지지향 ) Comprehensive( 종합 ) Socialist( 사회주의 ) Countries US, the Philippines, Ghana France, Brazil, Burma Sweden, Costa Rica, Sri Lanka former Soviet Union, Cuba, China