Psychology - Problem Drill 08: States of Consciousness

Transcription

1 Psychology - Problem Drill 08: States of Consciousness No. 1 of 10 Instructions: (1) Read the problem statement and answer choices carefully, (2) Work the problems on paper as 1. Which of the following is TRUE regarding consciousness? (A) In 1913 mental concepts began to reenter psychology. (B) In the 1960 s, psychology was the description and explanation of states of consciousness. (C) Subconscious information processing can be either parallel or serial. (D) In 1887 it was believed that psychology must discard all reference to consciousness. (E) Serial processing occurs in conscious information processing. In 1913, it was believed that psychology must discard all reference to consciousness. In the 1960 s, mental concepts began to reenter psychology. Only parallel processing occurs in subconscious information processing. In 1887, psychology was defined as the description and explanation of states of consciousness. E. Correct! It is true that serial processing occurs in conscious information processing. The very definition of Psychology and its relationship to consciousness has changed over time. In 1887 consciousness was the central theme in psychology since this field of research was defined as the description and explanation of states of consciousness. But the difficulty of scientifically studying consciousness led many psychologists during the first half of the last century to turn to direct observations of behavior; an approach favored by an emerging school of psychology called behaviorism. It was John b. Watson who in 1913 summarized this new definition of psychology by saying, psychology must discard all reference to consciousness. However, by 1960, mental concepts began to reenter psychology. Beneath the surface, subconscious information processing occurs simultaneously on many parallel tracks. When we look at a bird in flight, we are consciously aware of the result of our cognitive processing but not of our sub-processing of the bird s color, form, movement, distance, and identity. Researchers suggest that consciousness emerges from the subconscious interactions of many individual brain events. Unlike the parallel processing of subconscious information, conscious processing takes place in sequence; in a serial manner. Consciousness is relatively slow and has limited capacity, but is skilled at solving novel problems. It is like a chief executive, whose many assistants automatically take care of routine business. Running on automatic pilot allows consciousness; the mind s CEO, to monitor the whole system and deal with new challenges with new tasks requiring our conscious attention.

2 No. 2 of 10 Instructions: (1) Read the problem statement and answer choices carefully, (2) Work the problems on paper as 2. Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding sleep? (A) When people dream of performing an activity, their limbs often move in concert with the dream. (B) Sleep is a state of consciousness where we are alive and unconscious at the same time. (C) Older adults sleep more than younger adults. (D) Sleepwalkers are acting out their dreams. (E) Some people dream every night while others seldom dream. Research has shown that limb movement during sleep is not correlated with people performing an activity in their dream. B. Correct! It is true that sleep is a state of consciousness where we are alive and unconscious at the same time. It is not true that older adults sleep more than younger adults. It is not true that sleepwalkers are acting out their dreams. Research reveals that all people dream every night. Sleep is a state of consciousness where we are alive and unconscious at the same time. Sleep s age-old mysteries have intrigued us for centuries. Now, some of these mysteries are being solved. In laboratories throughout the world, thousands have slept attached to recording devices while others observe. By recording sleepers brain waves and muscle movements, by observing and waking them from time to time, the sleep watchers glimpse things that a thousand years of common sense never told us. Common sense says that when people dream of performing an activity, their limbs often move in concert with the dream; but this has been scientifically shown to be false. Common sense tells us that older adults sleep more than younger adults; but again, science has shown this is also false; as is the common belief that sleepwalkers are acting out their dreams, and that some people dream every night while others seldom dream. All of these have been shown to be false.

3 No. 3 of 10 Instructions: (1) Read the problem statement and answer choices carefully, (2) Work the problems on paper as 3. Which of the following statements is FALSE regarding biological cycles? (A) Migrating birds are an example of an annual biological clock. (B) Seasonal variations in appetite, sleep length, and moods are examples of circadian cycles. (C) Our bodies roughly synchronize with the 24-hour cycle of day and night through a biological clock called the circadian rhythm. (D) Recent evidence suggests that thinking is sharpest and memory most accurate when people are at their daily peak in circadian arousal. (E) All mammals and birds sleep. It is true that migrating birds are an example of an annual biological clock. B. Correct! Seasonal variations in appetite, sleep length, and moods are examples of annual cycles. It is true that our bodies roughly synchronize with the 24-hour cycle of day and night through a biological clock called the circadian rhythm. It is true that recent evidence suggests that thinking is sharpest and memory most accurate when people are at their daily peak in circadian arousal. It is true that all mammals and birds sleep. The rhythm of the day parallels the rhythm of life; from our waking to a new day s birth to our nightly return to what Shakespeare called death s counterfeit. Our bodies roughly synchronize with the 24-hour cycle of day and night through a biological clock called the circadian rhythm. Our body temperature rises as morning approaches, peaks during the day and dips for a time in early afternoon, and then begins to drop again before we go to sleep. Recent evidence suggests that thinking is sharpest and memory most accurate when people are at their daily peak in circadian arousal. Some of us are morning people while others are evening-energized. With age, we tend to shift from evening to morning preferences. Most university students are evening-energized and their performance typically improves across the day. Most older adults are morning persons with their performance declining as the day wears on. Over varying time periods, our bodies and our minds fluctuate. These biological rhythms are controlled by internal biological clocks. Such rhythms include annual cycles, such as those followed by migrating birds, periods of hibernation, and seasonal variations in appetite, sleep length, and moods. The female menstrual cycle lasts an average of 28 days; which is another cycle. There are also twenty-four-hour cycles that humans experience. Within this 24 hour cycle, we experience various levels of alertness and drowsiness, body temperature, and growth hormone secretion. All mammals and birds sleep. There are also shorter cycles, such as the 90 minute cycle we experience through the various stages of sleep.

4 No. 4 of Which of the following types of brain wave rhythms is matched correctly to its description? (A) Alpha rhythms are about 8-13 Hertz and are associated with quiet, waking states. (B) Theta rhythms signal an activated cortex. (C) Beta rhythms are 4-7 Hertz and occur during some sleep states. (D) Theta rhythms are quite slow, and are characterized by frequencies less than 4 Hertz and are often large in amplitude. (E) Delta rhythms are thought to represent binding of different populations of neurons together into a network for the purpose of carrying out a certain cognitive or motor function. A. Correct! It is true correct that Alpha rhythms are about 8-13 Hertz and are associated with quiet, waking states. It is Beta rhythms that signal an activated cortex. Theta occurs during sleep states. It is Theta rhythms that are 4-7 Hertz and occur during some sleep states, not Beta. It is Delta rhythms that are quite slow, and are characterized by frequencies less than 4 Hertz and are often large in amplitude and are associated with deep sleep. Instead, it is Gamma rhythms that are thought to represent binding of different populations of neurons together into a network for the purpose of carrying out a certain cognitive or motor function. EEG rhythms vary dramatically and often correlate with particular states of behavior such as the level of attentiveness, sleeping, or waking; and pathology, such as seizures or coma. The rhythms are categorized by their frequency range and each range is named after a Greek letter. Beta rhythms are fastest, and include any frequency greater than about 14 Hertz. These beta waves signal an activated cortex. Alpha rhythms are about 8-13 Hertz and are associated with quiet, waking states. Theta rhythms are 4-7 Hertz and occur during some sleep states. Delta rhythms are quite slow, and are characterized by frequencies less than 4 Hertz and are often large in amplitude. Delta waves are associated with deep sleep. There is one other category of rhythm that has only recently been recorded. This is due mainly to the limitations of EEG technology. Gamma rhythms include the frequency range of approximately Hz. Because of the filtering properties of the skull and scalp, gamma rhythms can only be recorded from electrodes placed directly on the brain or possibly with magnetoencephalography. Gamma rhythms are thought to represent binding of different populations of neurons together into a network for the purpose of carrying out a certain cognitive or motor function.

5 No. 5 of Which of the following statements regarding the sleep cycle is TRUE? (A) Roughly 25% of total sleep time is spent in non-rem sleep and 75% in REM. (B) Each sleep cycle lasts approximately 30 minutes. (C) As the night wears on, deep Stage 4 sleep gets progressively briefer and then disappears while the REM sleep period gets longer. (D) State 2 sleep may last up to 1 minute long. (E) Stage 3 is the deepest stage of sleep and may persist for minutes. It s roughly 75% of total sleep time is spent in non-rem while 25% in REM, with periodic cycles between these states throughout the night. Each sleep cycle lasts approximately 90 minutes, not 30 minutes. C. Correct! It is true that as the night wears on, deep Stage 4 sleep gets progressively briefer and then disappears while the REM sleep period gets longer. Stage 2 Sleep lasts from 5-15 minutes long. It is Stage 4 Sleep that is the deepest stage of sleep and may persist for minutes, not Stage 3. Even a good night s sleep is not a steady, unbroken journey. It is obvious that sleep takes the brain through a repetitive rollercoaster ride of activity. Roughly 75% of total sleep time is spent in non-rem and 25% in REM, with periodic cycles between these states throughout the night. Non-REM sleep is generally divided into four distinct stages. During a normal night, we slide through the stages of non-rem, then into REM, then back through the non-rem stages again, repeating the cycle about every 90 minutes. These cycles are examples of ultradian rhythms, which have faster periods than circadian rhythms which we will deal with later in this tutorial.. As the night wears on, deep Stage 4 sleep gets progressively briefer and then disappears. The REM sleep period gets longer. By morning, 20 to 25 percent of our average night s sleep (some 100 minutes) has been REM sleep. This means that those who say I rarely dream actually spend about 600 hours a year experiencing some 1500 dreams, or more than 100,000 drams over a typical lifetime. As an average, healthy adult becomes drowsy and begins to sleep, they enter into stage 1 non-rem sleep. Stage 1 is transitional sleep when the EEG alpha rhythms of relaxed waking become less regular and wane and the eyes make slow, rolling movements. Stage 1 is fleeting, usually lasting only a few minutes and is the lightest stage of sleep. It is during this stage that we can be most easily awakened. Stage 2 is slightly deeper and may last 5-15 minutes. It is characterized by occasional 8-14 Hertz oscillations of the EEG called the sleep spindle which is known to be generated by a thalamic pacemaker. The high amplitude, sharp wave form seen during stage 2 non-rem sleep is referred to as the K complex. During this stage, eye movements almost completely stop. Stage 3 non-rem sleep is characterized by large amplitude, slow delta rhythms. Eye and body movements are usually absent in this stage. Stage 4 is the deepest stage of sleep and may persist for minutes. After this time, sleep begins to lighten again and ascends to stage 2 for minutes and then suddenly enters a brief period of REM sleep, with its fast EEG beta rhythms and sharp, frequent eye movements. As the night progresses, there is a general reduction in the duration of non-rem sleep, particularly in stages 3 and 4, and an increase in REM sleep with half of the night s REM sleep occurring in its last third, and the longest REM cycle lasting minutes.

6 No. 6 of Which of the following statements is FALSE regarding hypnosis? (A) Posthypnotic Amnesia is a temporary memory loss. (B) Although people say they don t remember forgotten material, the material is still there for it can affect later behavior and be recalled at a prearranged signal. (C) To some extent nearly everyone is suggestible. (D) The power of hypnosis resides in the hypnotist s mind-control abilities. (E) Research shows that it is these hypnotically susceptible people who frequently become deeply absorbed in imaginative activities. It is true that Posthypnotic Amnesia is a temporary memory loss rather like being unable to recall a familiar name. It is true that although people say they don t remember forgotten material, the material is still there for it can affect later behavior and be recalled at a prearranged signal. It is true that to some extent nearly everyone is suggestible. D. Correct! Those who study hypnosis agree that its power resides not in the hypnotist but in the subject s openness to suggestion. It is true that research shows that it is these hypnotically susceptible people who frequently become deeply absorbed in imaginative activities. Hypnosis is defined as a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. Research has shown that someone who is deeply hypnotized will actually have altered brain waves. When a subject is instructed to forget all the happenings once out of the hypnotic state, they will later report posthypnotic amnesia. This is a temporary memory loss rather like being unable to recall a familiar name. Although people say they don t remember forgotten material, the material is still there for it can affect later behavior and be recalled at a prearranged signal. A critical issue then, is whether people are genuinely unable to recall the forgotten material, or whether people distract themselves or withhold information to meet the hypnotist s expectations. Those who study hypnosis agree that its power resides not in the hypnotist but in the subject s openness to suggestion. Hypnotists have no magical mind-control power; they merely engage people s ability to focus on certain images or behaviors. To some extent nearly everyone is suggestible. When people standing upright with their eyes closed are told repeatedly that they are swaying back and forth, most will indeed sway a little. In fact, postural sway is one of the items on the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale that assesses a person s hypnotizability. The people who respond to such suggestions without hypnosis are the people who respond with hypnosis. During hypnosis, a hypnotist gives a brief hypnotic induction and then presents a series of suggested experiences that range from easy (such as one s outstretched arms will move together) to difficult (with eyes open one will see a nonexistent person). Those who are highly hypnotizable; such as the 20 % who can carry out a suggestion not to smell or react to a bottle of ammonia held under the nose, are still likely to be the most hypnotizable 25 years later. Research shows that it is these hypnotically susceptible people who frequently become deeply absorbed in imaginative activities. Typically, they have rich fantasy lies and easily become absorbed in the imaginary events of a novel or movie. This displays an ability to focus our attention totally on a task, to become imaginatively absorbed in it, and to entertain fanciful possibilities.

7 No. 7 of All of these statements are true regarding hypnosis and pain EXCEPT: (A) One theory of hypnotic pain relief finds the answer in dissociation, a split between different levels of consciousness. (B) Another theory proposes that hypnotic pain relief results from selective attention. (C) Hypnosis cannot actually alleviate pain. (D) PET scans reveal this hypnosis reduces brain activity in a region involved in attending to painful stimuli but not in the somatosensory cortex that receives the raw sensory input. (E) Nearly 10 percent of us can become so deeply hypnotized that even major surgery can be performed without anesthesia. It is true that one theory of hypnotic pain relief finds the answer in dissociation, a split between different levels of consciousness. It is true that another theory proposes that hypnotic pain relief results from selective attention. C. Correct! Research has clearly shown that yes, hypnosis can alleviate pain. It is true that PET scans reveal this hypnosis reduces brain activity in a region involved in attending to painful stimuli but not in the somatosensory cortex that receives the raw sensory input. Research has shown that nearly 10 percent of us can become so deeply hypnotized that even major surgery can be performed without anesthesia. Can hypnosis alleviate pain? Research has clearly shown that yes, hypnosis can alleviate pain. For example, when unhypnotized subjects put their arms in an ice bath, they feel intense pain within 25 seconds. When hypnotizable subjects do the same after being given suggestions to feel no pain, they indeed report feeling little pain. As some dentists know, even light hypnosis can reduce fear and thus hypersensitivity to pain. Nearly 10 percent of us can become so deeply hypnotized that even major surgery can be performed without anesthesia. Half of us can gain at least some pain relief from hypnosis. One theory of hypnotic pain relief finds the answer in dissociation, a split between different levels of consciousness. According to this theory, hypnosis dissociates the sensation of the pain stimulus, of which the subject is still aware, from the emotional suffering that defines our experience of pain. The ice water therefore feels cold, but not painful. Another theory proposes that hypnotic pain relief results from selective attention. Support for this theory comes from studies showing that hypnosis relieves pain no better than does merely relaxing and distracting people. With their attention distracted during hypnosis, some women can experience childbirth with minimal pain. PET scans reveal this hypnosis reduces brain activity in a region involved in attending to painful stimuli but not in the somatosensory cortex that receives the raw sensory input.

8 No. 8 of Which of the following is TRUE regarding psychoactive drugs? (A) Continued use of psychoactive drugs can lead to dependence and addiction. (B) Withdrawal involves the need for bigger doses of a drug to get the desired effect. (C) Tolerance is due entirely to psychological need. (D) Tolerance is evident when a user stops taking psychoactive drugs. (E) With either physical or psychological dependence, the user s primary focus becomes hiding their drug use from others. A. Correct! It is true that continued use of psychoactive drugs can lead to dependence and addiction. It is tolerance that involves the need for bigger doses of a drug to get the desired effect. During development of tolerance, the user experiences neuroadaptation which is the brain s counteracting the disruption to its normal functioning. It is withdrawal that becomes evident when a user stops taking psychoactive drugs, not tolerance. With either physical or psychological dependence, the user s primary focus becomes obtaining and using the drug. Continued use of psychoactive drugs can lead to dependence and addiction. Tolerance involves the need for bigger doses of a drug to get the desired effect. The user experiences neuroadaptation which is the brain s counteracting the disruption to its normal functioning. Thus, the user requires larger and larger doses to experience the drug s effect. A person who rarely drinks alcohol might get tipsy on one can of beer, but an experienced drinker may not get tipsy until the second six-pack. Ironically, despite the connotation of tolerance, alcoholics brains, hearts, and livers suffer damage from the excessive alcohol they are tolerating. Users who stop taking psychoactive drugs may experience the undesirable side effects of withdrawal. As the body responds to the drug s absence, the user may feel physical pain and intense cravings, indicating a physical dependence on the drug. People can also develop psychological dependence, particularly for stress-relieving drugs. Although such drugs may not be physically addictive, they nevertheless become an important part of the user s life, often as a way of relieving negative emotions. With either physical or psychological dependence, the user s primary focus becomes obtaining and using the drug.

9 No. 9 of Which of the following pairs of psychoactive drug category to its description is CORRECT? (A) The opiates, which include opium and its derivatives, morphine and heroin, stimulate neural functioning. (B) Alcohol is a depressant that acts to slow the body s functions. (C) It is use of large doses of barbiturates that causes the brain to stop producing endorphins. (D) In large doses, alcohol is a depressant; in small amounts, it is a stimulant. (E) Compared with people who feel good about themselves, those who want to suppress their awareness of failures or shortcomings are less likely to drink. The opiates, which include opium and its derivatives, morphine and heroin, depress neural functioning. B. Correct! It is true that the depressants slow the body s functions and include opiates, barbiturates (tranquillizers), and alcohol. It is the use of opiates that causes the brain to eventually stop producing its own opiates, the endorphins, not barbiturates usage. Even in small doses, alcohol slows brain activity that controls judgment and inhibitions. Compared with people who feel good about themselves, those who want to suppress their awareness of failures or shortcomings are more likely to drink. The depressants slow the body s functions and include opiates, barbiturates (tranquillizers), and alcohol. Because barbiturates depress sympathetic nervous system activity, they are sometimes prescribed to induce sleep or reduce anxiety. In larger doses, they can lead to impaired memory and judgment. In combination with alcohol, the total depressive effect on body functions can be lethal. With sufficient doses, barbiturates by themselves can also cause death, which makes them the drugs often chosen by those attempting suicide. The opiates, which include opium and its derivatives, morphine and heroin, also depress neural functioning. The pupils constrict, the breathing slows, and the user becomes lethargic. For a few hours, blissful pleasure replaces pain and anxiety. But for short-term pleasure one pays a long-term price, which for the heroin user is the gnawing craving for another fix, the need for progressively larger dose, and the week-long physical anguish of withdrawal. For some, the ultimate price is death by overdose. The pathway to addiction is treacherous. When repeatedly flooded with an artificial opiate, the brain eventually stops producing its own opiates, the endorphins. If the drug is then withdrawn, the brain lacks the normal level of these painkilling neurotransmitters. The result is the agony of withdrawal. Let s start with a true or false question: In large doses, alcohol is a depressant; in small amounts, it is a stimulant. The answer is FALSE. Even in small doses, alcohol slows brain activity that controls judgment and inhibitions. When provoked, people under alcohol s influence respond more aggressively than usual. If asked to help, people under alcohol s influence respond more willingly than usual. Alcohol is an equal opportunity drug: it increases harmful tendencies and it increases helpful tendencies. Alcohol also reduces self-awareness. Compared with people who feel good about themselves, those who want to suppress their awareness of failures or shortcomings are more likely to drink. Losing a business deal, a game, or a romance will sometimes elicit a drinking binge.

10 No. 10 of When discussing the various hallucinogenic drugs which of the following is FALSE? (A) Marijuana s major active ingredient is THC. (B) LSD is a powerful hallucinogenic drug that is chemically similar to serotonin. (C) THC produces only a mild hallucinogenic effect and thus is easy to classify. (D) A person s current mood and expectations color the LSD experience. (E) Ecstasy is the street name for MDMA. It is true that Marijuana s major active ingredient is THC. It is true that LSD is a powerful hallucinogenic drug that is chemically similar to, and therefore blocks the actions of, a subtype of the neurotransmitter serotonin. C. Correct! THC produces a mix of effects that makes the drug difficult to classify. It can both relax, disinhibits and produce a euphoric high but it is also a mild hallucinogen. It is true that as with all drug use, a person s current mood and expectations color the LSD experience. It is true that Ecstasy is the street name for MDMA. Marijuana consists of leaves and flowers of the hemp plant, which for 5000 years has been cultivated for its fiber. Marijuana s major active ingredient is THC. Whether smoked or eaten in food such as chocolate brownies, THC produces a mix of effects that makes the drug difficult to classify. Like alcohol, marijuana relaxes, disinhibits, and may produce a euphoric high. But marijuana also acts as a mild hallucinogen by amplifying sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells. As with other drugs, the marijuana user s experience varies, depending on the situation. It also impairs motor coordination, perceptual skills, and reaction time. Because it remains in the body for up to a month, regular users need ingest smaller amounts to continue to achieve their same level of effect. Marijuana is not as addictive as cocaine or nicotine, but it does change brain chemistry, much as cocaine and heroin do and it may make the brain more susceptible to cocaine and heroin addiction. LSD was created in 1943 by chemist Albert Hofmann. It is a powerful hallucinogenic drug that is chemically similar to, and therefore blocks the actions of, a subtype of the neurotransmitter serotonin. The emotions of an LSD trip vary from euphoria to detachment to panic. As with all drug use, a person s current mood and expectations color the LSD experience. Despite emotional variations, the resulting perceptual distortions and hallucinations have commonalities. Ecstasy is the street name for MDMA. It is both a stimulant and a mild hallucinogen. As an amphetamine derivative, it triggers the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine. But its major effect is to release stored serotonin and to block its reabsorption, thus prolonging serotonin s feel-good flood. Beginning about a half-hour after taking an Ecstasy pill, and for the next 3 to 4 hours, users commonly experience emotional elevation and, given a social context, feelings of connectedness with those around them. But the downside to Ecstasy use is just as powerful. One immediate effect is dehydration and, when combined with prolonged dancing (as is commonly used as the club drug ), the risk of severe overheating, blood pressure increase, and death. One long-term effect of repeated leeching of brain serotonin is damage to serotonin-producing neurons, leading to reduced serotonin levels and increased risk of depressed mood. Other research reveals that Ecstasy interferes with serotonin s control of the circadian clock, suppresses the disease-fighting immune system, impairs memory and other cognitive functions.