PSYC 2301 CORE LEARNING OBJECTIVES AND KEY TERMS Wood, Wood, & Boyd Mastering the World of Psychology 5E

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1 PSYC 2301 CORE LEARNING OBJECTIVES AND KEY TERMS Wood, Wood, & Boyd Mastering the World of Psychology 5E CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1. Define psychology. Psychology 3 2. Define the scientific method and explain how it is used in Scientific method 3-6 psychology. 3. Describe the major schools of thought and theoretical perspectives in psychology. Behaviorism Psychoanalysis Humanistic psychology Cognitive psychology Evolutionary psychology Biological psychology Define and explain the differences between the various descriptive research methods. 5. Define representative sample and explain why it is important. 6. Describe the experimental method, state its advantages and disadvantages, and distinguish between independent and dependent variables. Sociocultural approach Naturalistic observation Laboratory observations Case study Survey Correlation Correlation coefficient Population Sample Representative sample Experimental method Causal hypothesis Independent variable Dependent variable Experimental group Control group Random assignment 7. Explain the rationale behind placebo-control experiments. Placebo effect Placebo Experimenter bias 8. Outline the ethical standards that psychological researchers must follow. Double-blind procedure

2 CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR 1. Describe various methods for studying the brain and its functions. Electroencephalogram (EEG) CT scan (computerized axial tomography) MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) PET scan (positron emission tomography) Identify the basic components of the neuron. Neuron Cell body Dendrites Axon 3. Identify the basic components of the synapse. Synaptic gap Synapse Presynaptic neuron Postsynaptic neuron 4. Define the action potential and explain the processes that Resting potential occur when a neuron is activated. 5. Identify the major neurotransmitters and explain how neurotransmitters affect behavior. 6. Explain the difference between the central and the peripheral nervous systems. 7. Explain the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. 8. Identify the medulla, pons and cerebellum, and describe their functions. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) Action potential Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Dopamine Norepinephrine Serotonin Endorphins Peripheral nervous system Central nervous system Autonomic nervous system Sympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system Brain stem Medulla Pons Cerebellum Table List the processes regulated by the hypothalamus. Hypothalamus Describe the limbic system, and list the responses and Limbic system behaviors affected by it. Amygdala 11. Describe the components of the cerebrum and their functions. Hippocampus Cerebrum Cerebral hemispheres Corpus callosum Cerebral cortex 12. Explain the functions of the frontal lobes. Association areas Frontal lobes Motor cortex Broca s area Broca s aphasia , Explain plasticity. Plasticity Define the endocrine system and explain the influence of the pituitary and adrenal glands on behavior. Endocrine system Hormones Pituitary gland Adrenal glands 15. Define behavior genetics Behavior genetics 67 2

3 CHAPTER 3: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 1. Describe the function of the mirror neuron system (MNS). Mirror neuron system (MNS) 99 CHAPTER 4: CONSCIOUSNESS 1. Describe the physical and psychological effects of meditation Meditation CHAPTER 5: LEARNING 1. Define and identify examples of learning. Learning Explain the process through which classical conditioning modifies an organism s responses to stimuli Summarize the contributions of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner to the study of learning. 4. Explain the process through which operant conditioning modifies an organism s responses to stimuli. Classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned response (UR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Neutral stimulus Extinction (in classical conditioning) Spontaneous recovery (Stimulus) generalization (Stimulus) discrimination Operant conditioning Reinforcer Extinction (in operant conditioning) Generalization Discriminative stimulus Reinforcement Primary reinforcer Secondary reinforcer 5. Define shaping. Shaping Successive approximations 6. Explain the difference between positive and negative Positive reinforcement reinforcement. Negative reinforcement 7. Define punishment and summarize the factors that influence Positive punishment its effectiveness. Negative punishment 8. Explain the applications of operant conditioning theory. Behavior modification Token economy Biofeedback 9. Define observational learning. Observational learning

4 CHAPTER 6: MEMORY 1. Explain the information-processing approach to memory. Information processing approach Encoding Storage Retrieval 2. Describe the function and characteristics of short-term Short-term memory memory. Working memory 3. Describe the characteristics of long-term memory. Long-term memory Episodic memory Semantic memory Declarative memory (explicit memory) Nondeclarative memory (implicit memory) 4. Describe several techniques for improving memory. Elaborative rehearsal Mnemonics Organization Overlearning Massed practice Spaced (distributed) practice Self-references Visual imaginary 5. Explain the differences between recall, free recall, cued Recall 186 recall, and recognition measures of memory. Free recall Cued recall (retrieval cue) Recognition 6. Explain the roles of schemas in memory. Schema Explain the reasons for forgetting. Encoding failure Decay theory Interference Motivated forgetting Retrieval failure Displacement Describe the process of reconstructive memory. Eyewitness accounts Describe the symptoms and proposed causes of Alzheimer s disease. Alzheimer s disease 201 CHAPTER 7: COGNITION, LANGUAGE, AND INTELLIGENCE None None 4

5 CHAPTER 8: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1. Describe the process of cognitive development according Schemes 253 to Piaget. Assimilation 2. Summarize the characteristics of Piaget s four stages of cognitive development. 3. Explain Kohlberg s levels and stages of moral development. 4. Summarize the characteristics of Erikson s eight stages of psychosocial development. 5. Explain the differences between cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs. 6. List the characteristics of the three stages of prenatal development. 7. Explain the effects of teratogens and other negative factors on prenatal development. 8. Describe the relationship between contact comfort and attachment. 9. Explain the differences between the secure, anxiousambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized patterns of attachment. 10. Explain the effects of authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive parenting styles on children s development. 11. Explain the difference between sex and gender. Sex Gender 12. Explain the social learning theory and gender schema theory explanations of gender role development. Accommodation Sensorimotor stage Object permanence Preoperational stage Egocentrism Concrete operations stage Conservation Formal operations stage Preconventional level and stages Conventional level and stages Postconventional level and stages Trust/mistrust Autonomy/shame & doubt Initiative/guilt Industry/inferiority Identity/role confusion Intimacy/isolation Generativity/stagnation Ego integrity/despair Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design Zygote Period of the zygote (germinal stage) Period of the embryo Period of the fetus Teratogen Fetal alcohol syndrome Attachment Separation anxiety Stranger anxiety Secure attachment Avoidant attachment Resistant attachment Disorganized/disoriented attachment Authoritarian parents Authoritative parents Permissive parents Gender identity Social learning theorists Gender-schema theory Supplemental Reading 1 (See p. 8) Supplemental Reading 2 (See pp. 9-10) CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 1. Explain Maslow s hierarchy of needs Hierarchy of needs Outline the proposed causes of sexual orientation. Sexual orientation

6 CHAPTER 10: HEALTH AND STRESS 1. Explain the purpose and structure of the Social Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS.) 2. Describe the features of post-traumatic stress disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder 331 (PTSD). 3. Describe the impact of daily hassles on stress and health. Hassles Describe the effects of stress on the immune system. Biopsychosocial model Health psychology Psychoneuroimmunology 5. Describe the stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome General Adaptation syndrome (GAS) (GAS). Alarm stage Resistance stage Exhaustion stage 6. Explain the differences between problem-focused and Problem-focused coping 340 emotion-focused coping. 7. List the factors that influence individual capacity for resisting the effects of stress. Emotion-focused coping Resilience (risk/resilience model) Hardiness Social support Reduce irrational thought CHAPTER 11: PERSONALITY THEORY AND ASSESSMENT Learning Objective Key Terms Pages 1. Define personality. Personality Describe the processes that take place in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind. Conscious Preconscious Define and identify the functions of the id, ego, and superego. Id Ego 4. Explain the purpose of defense mechanisms in Freud s theory. 6 Unconscious Superego Defense mechanism Repression Projection Denial Regression Reaction formation Displacement Table Summarize the basic assumptions associated with Freud s Psychosexual stages psychosexual stages. 6. Explain the views of humanistic theorists regarding Humanistic psychology 370 personality. 7. Explain the views of Abraham Maslow on self-actualization Self-actualization 371 and its role in personality functioning. 8. Explain the Big Five personality traits. Traits Big Five (five-factor model) Explain Bandura s social-cognitive view of personality. Social cognitive theory Reciprocal determinism Self-efficacy Describe the evidence for and against the view that personality is inherited. 11. Explain the differences between objective (self-report inventory) and projective personality test. Self-report inventory Projective test

7 CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 1. List the criteria for abnormal behavior. Maladaptive/dysfunctional behaviors Deviation from social/cultural norms Personal distress 2. Describe the purpose, organization, and content of the DSM- DSM Define and describe the group of disorders called anxiety Agoraphobia disorders. Panic disorder Generalized anxiety disorder Social anxiety disorder Specific phobias 4. Describe the features of obsessive-compulsive disorders. Obsessive-compulsive disorders Describe the features of major depression. Major depressive disorder Summarize the features of bipolar disorder. Bipolar disorder Mania (manic episode) 7. Summarize the risk factors for suicide Describe the features of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia List the possible causes of schizophrenia Describe the characteristics of dissociative identity disorder. Dissociative identity disorder (DID) Summarize the features of the personality disorders. Personality disorders Paranoid personality Narcissistic personality Borderline personality Antisocial personality Table 12.3 CHAPTER 13: THERAPIES 1. Describe the effects of substituting rational beliefs for Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) irrational ones on emotional functioning. 2. Explain the difference between a psychologist and a Psychologist 442 psychiatrist. Psychiatrist 3. Summarize the various approaches to therapy. Psychoanalysis Person-centered (client-centered) therapy Behavior therapy Cognitive therapy Biomedical therapy 446 Summary Table CHAPTER 14: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY None None 7

8 Supplemental Reading 1 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research Designs How would you study changes over the lifespan? You could follow a group of people as they get older, or you could compare individuals of different ages. Developmental psychologists use both approaches in their research. In a longitudinal study, the same group of participants is followed and measured at different ages, over a period of years. Such studies allow researchers to observe age-related changes in individuals. There are some drawbacks to a longitudinal study, however. It is time consuming and expensive, and participants may drop out of the study or die, possibly leaving the researcher with a biased sample. A cross-sectional study is a less expensive and less time-consuming method in which researchers compare groups of participants of different ages to determine age-related differences in some characteristics. But, in a cross-sectional study, differences across age groups are based on group averages, so this approach cannot be used to answer certain questions. For example, it could not be used to determine if individual temperament is stable over time. Moreover, certain relevant differences in groups of participants may have less to do with the participants ages than with the eras in which they grew up, a problem known as the cohort effect. 8

9 Supplemental Reading 2 Sex and Gender Do you use the words sex and gender interchangeably? Most people do, but the words have different meanings. Generally speaking, sex is a biological term. It typically refers to the physiological status of being male or female. As you learned in Chapter 2, the sex chromosomes, XX in females and XY in males, determine one s biological sex. Information on these chromosomes contributes to the development of the genitalia and other aspects of biological sex. By contrast, gender is more commonly used to refer to the psychological and social variables associated with one s sex. Cultural expectations for males and females are called gender roles. Gender roles include psychological as well as behavioral components. A culture s gender role for males is referred to as the masculine gender role, and its gender role for females is referred to as the feminine gender role. The integration of culturally defined masculine and feminine gender roles into one s sense of self underlies the development of gender identity, the psychological experience of feeling male or female. Most boys grow up with a masculine gender identity that helps them to be comfortable with the behaviors that their cultures regard as acceptable for males. Likewise, most female children develop a feminine gender identity that is consistent with behaviors in the cultures in which they are raised. But what do you think happens when a person s sex and his or her gender identity do not match? In other words, what are the consequences of having male sex combined with female gender identity or female sex combined with male gender identity? A person who is transgendered has a gender identity that is the opposite of his or her biological sex. Thus, the person has a strong desire to be the opposite sex. Some studies suggest that transgendered individuals may have been exposed to atypical amounts of androgens in the womb (Lippa, 2005a). But most do not have such histories. Moreover, most children who express a desire to be the opposite sex no longer do so after puberty (Wallien & Cohen-Kettenis, 2008). Thus, the origin of transgenderism remains a mystery. 9

10 In an effort to bring congruence to their lives, some transgendered individuals wear clothing and display behaviors that are more typical of the opposite sex. Those who live as the opposite gender on a full-time basis are known as transsexuals. Some transsexuals are so anguished by the conflict between their sex and their gender identity that they undergo sex reassignment a process involving hormonal treatment, reconstructive surgery, and psychological counseling in order to achieve a match between the two. Research shows that, following sex reassignment, transsexuals are generally satisfied with the results and seldom regret their decision (Lawrence, 2003). The phenomenon of transgenderism illustrates the fact that biological sex and psychological gender are distinct entities. Moreover, biological sex is clearly categorical; that is, people are either male or female, rare cases of intersexual status notwithstanding. By contrast, psychological gender seems to vary by degrees. As noted, most girls grow up to be comfortable with their culture s feminine gender role, but they do not all conform to that gender role to the same degree. The same is true for boys. Thus, one of the most widely researched questions in psychology concerns the process through which children develop their understanding of cultural gender roles and integrate that understanding into their own sense of self. 10