Human Osteology SECOND EDITION. Text by-

Transcription

1 Human Osteology SECOND EDITION Text by- Tim D. White Department of Integrative Biology and Laboratory for Human Evolutionary Studies Museum of Vertebrate Zoology University of California Berkeley, California Images by Pieter Arend Folkens Alaska Whale Foundation Benicia, California ACADEMIC PRESS An Imprint ofelsevier San Diego San Francisco New York Boston London Sydney Tokyo

2 Contents Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition xix xxi CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1.1 Human Osteology A Guide to the Text Teaching Osteology Resources for the Osteologist 1.5 Studying Osteology Working with Human Bones Suggested Further Readings CHAPTER 2 Bone Biology 2.1 Variation A Few Facts about Bone Bones as Elements of the Musculoskeletal System 2.4 Gross Anatomy of Bones Molecular Structure of Bone Histology and Metabolism of Bone Bone Growth Morphogenesis Bone Repair 32 Suggested Further Readings 34 20

3 CHAPTER 3 Anatomical Terminology 3.1 Planes of Reference Directional Terms General Teeth Hands and Feet Motions of the Body General Hands and Feet General Bone Features Projections and Parts Depressions 42 Suggested Further Readings 43 CHAPTER 4 Skull 4.1 Handling the Skull Elements of the Skull Growth and Architecture, Sutures and Sinuses 4.4 Skull Orientation Cranial Osteometric Points Unpaired (Midline) Cranial Osteometric Points Paired Cranial Osteometric Points Learning Cranial Skeletal Anatomy Frontal Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding 69 Parietals Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding 72 Temporals Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Auditory Ossicles 4.11 Occipital Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding vi

4 4.12 Maxillae Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Palatines Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Vomer Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Inferior Nasal Conchae Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Ethmoid Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Lacrimals Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Nasals Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Zygomatics Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Sphenoid Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Mandible Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding 105 vii

5 4.22 Mastication 106 Suggested Further Readings 107 CHAPTER 5 Dentition 5.1 Dental Form and Function Dental Terminology Anatomy of a Tooth Dental Development Tooth Identification To Which Tooth Category (Class) Does the Specimen Belong? Incisors Canines Premolars Molars Is the Tooth Permanent or Deciduous? Diagnostic Criteria Special Cases Is the Tooth an Upper or a Lower? Upper versus Lower Incisors Upper versus Lower Canines Upper versus Lower Premolars Upper versus Lower Molars Where in the Arch Is the Tooth Located? Upper Incisors: I 1 versus P 124 Lower Incisors: Ij versus I 2 Upper Premolars: P 3 versus P 4 Lower Premolars: P 3 versus P Is the Upper Molars: M 1 versus M 2 versus M Lower Molars: Mj versus M 2 versus M Tooth from the Right or 1the Left Side? Upper Incisors 129 Lower Incisors 130 Upper Canines 131 Lower Canines 132 Upper Premolars 132 Lower Premolars 132 Upper Molars 132 Lower Molars 135 Suggested Further Readings CHAPTER 6 Hyoid and Vertebrae 6.1 Hyoid 137 viii

6 6.1.1 Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding General Characteristics of Vertebrae Anatomy Growth Cervical Vertebrae (n=7) Identification Special Cervical Vertebrae Siding Thoracic Vertebrae [n=12) Identification Special Thoracic Vertebrae Siding Lumbar Vertebrae (n=5) Identification Identifying Lumbar Position Siding Functional Aspects of the Vertebrae 156 CHAPTER 7 Thorax: Sternum and Ribs 7.1 Sternum Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Ribs Anatomy Special Ribs Growth Possible Confusion Siding Functional Aspects of the Thoracic Skeleton 166 CHAPTER 8 Shoulder Girdle: Clavicle and Scapula 8.1 Clavicle Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Scapula Anatomy Growth ix

7 8.2.3 Possible Confusion Siding Functional Aspects of the Shoulder Girdle 177 CHAPTER 9 Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna 9.1 Humerus Anatomy 179 Growth 185 Possible Confusion Siding Radius Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Ulna Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Functional Aspects of the Elbow and Wrist 197 CHAPTER 10 Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges 10.1 Carpals Scaphoid Lunate Triquetral Pisiform Trapezium (Greater Multangular) Trapezoid (Lesser Multangular) Capitate Hamate Growth Possible Confusion Metacarpals First Metacarpal (Thumb) Second Metacarpal Third Metacarpal Fourth Metacarpal Fifth Metacarpal Growth Possible Confusion Siding Hand Phalanges Proximal Hand Phalanges 215 x

8 Intermediate Hand Phalanges Distal Hand Phalanges Growth Possible Confusion Siding Functional Aspects of the Hand 215 CHAPTER 11 Pelvic Girdle: Sacrum, Coccyx, and Os Coxae 11.1 Sacrum Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Coccyx Os Coxae Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Siding Functional Aspects of the Pelvic Girdle 230 CHAPTER 12 Leg: Femur, Patella, Tibia, and Fibula 12.1 Femui r 231 Anatomy 231 Growth 239 Possible Confusion Siding Patella Tibia Anatomy 241 Growth 241 Possible Confusion Siding Anatomy 242 Growth 245 Possible Confusion Siding Fibula Anatomy Growth Possible Confusion Sidine Functional Aspects of the Knee and Ankle 255 XI

9 CHAPTER 13 Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges 13.1 Tarsals Talus Calcaneus Cuboid Navicular Medial (First) Cuneiform Intermediate (Second) Cuneiform Lateral (Third) Cuneiform Growth Possible Confusion Metatarsals First Metatarsal Second Metatarsal Third Metatarsal Fourth Metatarsal Fifth Metatarsal Growth Possible Confusion Siding Foot Phalanges Proximal Foot Phalanges Intermediate Foot Phalanges Distal Foot Phalanges Growth Possible Confusion Siding Functional Aspects of the Foot 276 CHAPTER 14 Recovery, Preparation, and Curation of Skeletal Remains 14.1 Search Discovery Excavation and Retrieval Transport Sorting Preparation Preservation Restoration Molding and Casting Curation 299 Suggested Further Readings 300 xii

10 CHAPTER 15 Analysis and Reporting of Skeletal Remains 15.1 Analysis Setting Metric Analysis Photography Equipment Film and Exposure Lighting and Setup Radiography Microscopy Computing Reporting 315 Suggested Further Readings 317 CHAPTER 16 Ethics in Osteology 16.1 Ethics in Forensic Osteology Boundaries of Evidence The Expert Witness Ethics in Archeological Osteology Ethics in Collision NAGPRA and Its Effects The Future Ethics in Human Paleontology 332 Suggested Further Readings 335 CHAPTER 17 Assessment of Age, Sex, Stature, Ancestry, and Identity 17.1 Accuracy and Precision of Estimation From Known to Unknown Estimation of Age Estimating Subadult Age from the Dentition Estimating Adult Age from the Dentition Estimating Adult Age from Cranial Suture Closure Estimating Subadult Age from Long-Bone Length Estimating Subadult Age from Epiphyseal Closure Estimating Adult Age from the Pubic Symphysis Surface Parturition Changes at the Pubic Symphysis Estimating Adult Age from the Ilium's Auricular Surface Estimating Adult Age from the Sternal Rib End 357 xiii

11 Multifactorial Age Estimation Determination of Sex Sexing the Skull and Dentition Sexing the Postcranial Skeleton Estimation of Stature Estimation of Ancestry Identifying the Individual 376 Suggested Further Readings 378 CHAPTER 18 Osteological and Dental Pathology 18.1 Trauma Fracture Dislocation Artificial Deformation Trephination and Amputation Infectious Diseases and Associated Manifestations Osteomyelitis Periostitis Tuberculosis Treponemal Infections Circulatory Disturbances and Hematopoietic Disorders 18.4 Metabolic and Hormonal Imbalance Scurvy Rickets Osteoporosis Endocrine Disturbances and Dysplasias Tumors Arthritis Osteoarthritis Rheumatoid Arthritis Ankylosing Spondylitis Dental Pathology Caries Dental Hypoplasia Periodontal Disease Dental Calculus Artificial Dental Modification Occupation 404 Suggested Further Readings CHAPTER 19 Postmortem Skeletal Modification 19.1 Bone Fracture 408 xiv

12 19.2 Bone Modification by Physical Agents Chemistry Rock, Earth, and Ice Abrasion Fire Bone Modification by Nonhuman Biological Agents Nonhuman Animal Plant Bone Modification by Humans Cutmarks, Chopmarks, and Scrapemarks Percussion Marks 421 Suggested Further Readings CHAPTER 20 The Biology of Skeletal Populations: Discrete Traits, Distance, Diet, Disease, and Demography 20.1 Discrete Traits Dental Nonmetric Variation Cranial Nonmetric Variation Postcranial Nonmetric Variation Measuring Biological Distance Diet Disease and Demography 435 Suggested Further Readings 438 CHAPTER 21 Molecular Osteology 21.1 Sampling DNA PCR and Methodology Contamination Taphonomy of DNA Applications Amino Acids Isotopic Osteology 447 Suggested Further Readings 449 CHAPTER 22 Forensic Case Study: Homicide: "We Have the Witnesses but No Body" 22.1 A Disappearance in Cleveland 452 xv

13 22.2 Investigation Inventory Identification Conclusion 457 CHAPTER 23 Forensic Case Study: Child Abuse, the Skeletal Perspective 23.1 Child Abuse and the Skeleton A Missing Child Found The Analysis The Result 465 CHAPTER 24 Archeological Case Study: The Bioarcheology of the Stillwater Marsh, Nevada 24.1 Background Geography of the Carson Sink Exposure and Recovery Analysis Affinity Osteoarthritis Limb Shaft Cross-Sectional Anatomy Physiological Stress Dietary Reconstruction The Future 475 CHAPTER 25 Archeological Case Study: Anasazi Remains from Cottonwood Canyon 25.1 Cannibalism and Archeology Cottonwood Canyon Site 42SA Discovery Analysis Patterns of Damage Sorting and Refitting Minimum Number, Age, and Sex of the Individuals What Happened? The Osteological Contribution 485 xvi

14 CHAPTER 26 Paleontological Case Study: The Pit of the Bones 26.1 Atapuerca Discovery Recovery Paleodemography Paleopathology Functional and Phylogenetic Assessment 26.7 Continuing Mysteries CHAPTER 27 Paleontological Case Study: Australopithecus Mandible from Maka, Ethiopia 27.1 Historical Background The Geography and Geology of Maka Search and Discovery Collection Restoration Photography and Casting Analysis Publication 514 APPENDIX Photographic Methods and Provenance A.I Methods 517 A. 1.1 Preparation of the Bone 517 A. 1.2 Equipment 517 A. 1.3 Lighting and Staging 518 A. 1.4 Film and Development 518 A.2 Provenance 519 A.2.1 Chapter A.2.2 Chapter A.2.3 Chapter A.2.4 Chapters A.2.5 Chapter A.2.6 Chapter A.2.7 Chapter A.2.8 Chapter Glossary 523 Bibliography 531 Index 555 xvii