Chapter 3 The Cellular Level of Organization Lecture Presentation by Lee Ann Frederick University of Texas at Arlington 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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1 Chapter 3 The Cellular Level of Organization Lecture Presentation by Lee Ann Frederick University of Texas at Arlington
2 An Introduction to Cells Learning Outcomes 3-1 List the functions of the plasma membrane and the structural features that enable it to perform those functions. 3-2 Describe the organelles of a typical cell, and indicate the specific functions of each. 3-3 Explain the functions of the cell nucleus and discuss the nature and importance of the genetic code. 3-4 Summarize the role of DNA in protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell function.
3 An Introduction to Cells Learning Outcomes 3-5 Describe the processes of cellular diffusion and osmosis, and explain their role in physiological systems. 3-6 Describe carrier-mediated transport and vesicular transport mechanisms used by cells to facilitate the absorption or removal of specific substances. 3-7 Explain the origin and significance of the membrane potential.
4 An Introduction to Cells Learning Outcomes 3-8 Describe the stages of the cell life cycle, including mitosis, interphase, and cytokinesis, and explain their significance. 3-9 Discuss the regulation of the cell life cycle Discuss the relationship between cell division and cancer Define differentiation, and explain its importance.
5 An Introduction to Cells Cell Theory Developed from Robert Hooke s research Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals All cells come from the division of preexisting cells Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level
6 An Introduction to Cells Sex Cells (Germ Cells) Reproductive cells Male sperm Female oocyte (a cell that develops into an egg) Somatic Cells Soma = body All body cells except sex cells
7 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell (Part 3 of 9). = Plasma membrane = Nonmembranous organelles = Membranous organelles Secretory vesicles Centrosome and Centrioles Cytoplasm contains two centrioles at right angles; each centriole is composed of 9 microtubule triplets in a array Functions Essential for movement of chromosomes during cell division; organization of mirotubules in cytoskeleton Centrosome Centrioles CYTOSOL NUCLEUS
8 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell (Part 4 of 9). Cytoskeleton Proteins organized in fine filaments or slender tubes Functions Strength and support; movement of cellular structures and materials Microfilament Microtubule = Plasma membrane = Nonmembranous organelles = Membranous organelles Plasma Membrane Lipid bilayer containing phospholipids, steroids, proteins, and carbohydrates Functions Isolation; protection; sensitivity; support; controls entry and exit of materials Cytosol (distributes materials by diffusion) Free ribosomes
9 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell (Part 5 of 9). Microvilli Microvilli are extensions of the plasma membrane containing microfilaments. Function Increase surface area to facilitate absorption of extracellular materials = Plasma membrane = Nonmembranous organelles = Membranous organelles
10 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell (Part 6 of 9). Cilia (see Figure 3-4b) Cilia are long extensions of the plasma membrane containing microtubules. There are two types: primary and motile. = Plasma membrane = Nonmembranous organelles = Membranous organelles Functions A primary cilium acts as a sensor. Motile cilia move materials over cell surfaces Proteasomes Hollow cylinders of proteolytic enzymes with regulatory proteins at their ends Functions Breakdown and recycling of damaged or abnormal intracellular proteins Ribosomes RNA + proteins; fixed ribosomes bound to rough endoplasmic reticulum; free ribosomes scattered in cytoplasm Function Protein synthesis
11 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell (Part 7 of 9). Golgi apparatus Stacks of flattened membranes (cisternae) containing chambers Functions Storage, alteration, and packaging of secretory products and lysosomal enzymes Mitochondria Double membrane, with inner membrane folds (cristae) enclosing important metabolic enzymes Function Produce 95% of the ATP required by the cell NUCLEUS Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Network of membranous channels extending throughout the cytoplasm Functions Synthesis of secretory products; intracellular storage and transport; detoxification of drugs or toxins Rough ER modifies and packages newly synthesized proteins Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates = Plasma membrane = Nonmembranous organelles = Membranous organelles
12 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell (Part 8 of 9). = Plasma membrane = Nonmembranous organelles = Membranous organelles Peroxisomes Vesicles containing degradative enzymes Free ribosomes Functions Catabolism of fats and other organic compounds; neutralization of toxic compounds generated in the process Lysosomes Vesicles containing digestive enzymes Function Intracellular removal of damaged organelles or pathogens
13 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell (Part 9 of 9). Chromatin Nuclear envelope Nucleolus (site of rrna synthesis and assembly of ribosomal subunits) Nuclear pore NUCLEOPLASM NUCLEUS Nucleoplasm containing nucleotides, enzymes, nucleoproteins, and chromatin; surrounded by a double membrane, the nuclear envelope Functions Control of metabolism; storage and processing of genetic information; control of protein synthesis
14 3-1 Plasma Membrane Extracellular Fluid (Interstitial Fluid) A watery medium that surrounds a cell Plasma membrane (cell membrane) separates cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid Cytoplasm Cytosol = liquid Intracellular structures collectively known as organelles
15 3-1 Plasma Membrane Functions of the Plasma Membrane Physical Isolation Barrier Regulation of Exchange with the Environment Ions and nutrients enter Wastes eliminated and cellular products released
16 3-1 Plasma Membrane Functions of the Plasma Membrane Sensitivity to the Environment Extracellular fluid composition Chemical signals Structural Support Anchors cells and tissues
17 3-1 Plasma Membrane Membrane Lipids Phospholipid bilayer Hydrophilic heads toward watery environment, both sides Hydrophobic fatty-acid tails inside membrane Barrier to ions and water soluble compounds
18 3-1 Plasma Membrane Membrane Proteins Integral proteins Within the membrane Peripheral proteins Bound to inner or outer surface of the membrane
19 3-1 Plasma Membrane Membrane Proteins Anchoring proteins (stabilizers) Attach to inside or outside structures Recognition proteins (identifiers) Label cells as normal or abnormal Enzymes Catalyze reactions
20 3-1 Plasma Membrane Membrane Proteins Receptor proteins Bind and respond to ligands (ions, hormones) Carrier proteins Transport specific solutes through membrane Channels Regulate water flow and solutes through membrane
21 3-1 Plasma Membrane Membrane Carbohydrates Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids Extend outside cell membrane Form sticky sugar coat (glycocalyx) Functions of the glycocalyx Lubrication and Protection Anchoring and Locomotion Specificity in Binding (receptors) Recognition (immune response)
22 Figure 3-2 The Plasma Membrane. EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Glycolipids of glycocalyx Phospholipid bilayer Integral protein with channel Integral glycoproteins Hydrophobic tails Plasma membrane Gated channel CYTOPLASM Cholesterol Peripheral proteins = 2 nm Hydrophilic heads Cytoskeleton (Microfilaments)
23 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Cytoplasm All materials inside the cell and outside the nucleus Cytosol (intracellular fluid) Dissolved materials Nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products High potassium/low sodium High protein High carbohydrate/low amino acid and fat Organelles Structures with specific functions
24 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm The Organelles Nonmembranous organelles No membrane Direct contact with cytosol Include the cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, ribosomes, and proteasomes Membranous organelles Covered with plasma membrane Isolated from cytosol Include the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria
25 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Nonmembranous Organelles Six types of nonmembranous organelles 1. Cytoskeleton 2. Microvilli 3. Centrioles 4. Cilia 5. Ribosomes 6. Proteasomes
26 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm The Cytoskeleton Structural proteins for shape and strength Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules
27 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm The Cytoskeleton Microfilaments thin filaments composed of the protein actin Provide additional mechanical strength Interact with proteins for consistency Pair with thick filaments of myosin for muscle movement
28 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm The Cytoskeleton Intermediate filaments mid-sized between microfilaments and thick filaments Durable (collagen) Strengthen cell and maintain shape Stabilize organelles Stabilize cell position
29 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm The Cytoskeleton Microtubules large, hollow tubes of tubulin protein Attach to centrosome Strengthen cell and anchor organelles Change cell shape Move vesicles within cell (kinesin and dynein) Form spindle apparatus
30 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm The Cytoskeleton Thick filaments Myosin protein in muscle cells
31 Figure 3-3a The Cytoskeleton. Microvillus Microfilaments Plasma membrane Terminal web Mitochondrion Intermediate filaments Endoplasmic reticulum Microtubule Secretory vesicle a The cytoskeleton provides strength and structural support for the cell and its organelles. Interactions between cytoskeletal components are also important in moving organelles and in changing the shape of the cell.
32 Figure 3-3b The Cytoskeleton. Microvillus Microfilaments Terminal web Microfilaments and microvilli SEM 30,000 b The microfilaments and microvilli of an intestinal cell. Such an image, produced by a scanning electron microscope, is called a scanning electron micrograph.
33 Figure 3-3c The Cytoskeleton. Microfilaments and microvilli LM 3200 c Microtubules (yellow) in living cells, as seen after special fluorescent labeling.
34 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Microvilli Increase surface area for absorption Attach to cytoskeleton Centrioles in the Centrosome Centrioles form spindle apparatus during cell division Centrosome: cytoplasm surrounding centriole Cilia Small hairlike extensions Cilia move fluids across the cell surface
35 Figure 3-4a Centrioles and Cilia. Microtubules Centriole TEM 185,000 a Centriole. A centriole consists of nine microtubule triplets (known as a array). A pair of centrioles oriented at right angles to one another occupies the centrosome. This micrograph, produced by a transmission electron microscope, is called a TEM.
36 Figure 3-4b Centrioles and Cilia. Plasma membrane Microtubules Basal body b Motile cilium. A motile cilium contains nine pairs of microtubules surrounding a central pair (9 + 2 array). The basal body to which it is anchored has a microtubule array similar to that of a centriole.
37 Figure 3-4c Centrioles and Cilia. Power stroke Return stroke c Ciliary movement. Action of a single motile cilium. During the power stroke, the cilium is relatively stiff. During the return stroke, it bends and returns to its original position.
38 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Ribosomes Build polypeptides in protein synthesis Two types 1. Free ribosomes in cytoplasm Manufacture proteins for cell 2. Fixed ribosomes attached to ER Manufacture proteins for secretion Proteasomes Contain enzymes (proteases) Disassemble damaged proteins for recycling
39 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Membranous Organelles Five types of membranous organelles 1. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) 2. Golgi apparatus 3. Lysosomes 4. Peroxisomes 5. Mitochondria
40 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Endo- = within, plasm = cytoplasm, reticulum = network Cisternae are storage chambers within membranes Functions 1. Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids 2. Storage of synthesized molecules and materials 3. Transport of materials within the ER 4. Detoxification of drugs or toxins
41 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) No ribosomes attached Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates Phospholipids and cholesterol (membranes) Steroid hormones (reproductive system) Glycerides (storage in liver and fat cells) Glycogen (storage in muscles)
42 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) Surface covered with ribosomes Active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis Folds polypeptide protein structures Encloses products in transport vesicles
43 Figure 3-5a The Endoplasmic Reticulum. Ribosomes Cisternae Nucleus a The three-dimensional relationships between the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticula are shown here.
44 Figure 3-5b The Endoplasmic Reticulum. Rough endoplasmic reticulum with fixed (attached) ribosomes Free ribosomes Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Endoplasmic Reticulum TEM 111,000 b Rough endoplasmic reticulum and free ribosomes in the cytoplasm of a cell.
45 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Golgi Apparatus Vesicles enter forming face and exit maturing face Functions 1. Modifies and packages secretions Hormones or enzymes Released through exocytosis 2. Renews or modifies the plasma membrane 3. Packages special enzymes within vesicles for use in the cytoplasm
46 Figure 3-6a The Golgi Apparatus. Secretory vesicles Secretory product a Here is a three-dimensional view of the Golgi apparatus with a cut edge. Transport vesicles
47 Figure 3-6b The Golgi Apparatus. Golgi apparatus TEM 42,000 b This is a sectional view of the Golgi apparatus of an active secretory cell.
48 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 1 of 11).
49 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 2 of 11).
50 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 3 of 11). 1 Protein synthesis begins when a gene on DNA produces messenger RNA (mrna), the template for protein synthesis. DNA 1 mrna 2 Nucleus
51 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 4 of 11). The mrna leaves 2 the nucleus and attaches to a free ribosome in the cytoplasm, or a fixed ribosome on the RER. Ribosome Rough ER mrna 2 Cytosol
52 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 5 of 11). Proteins 3 constructed on free ribosomes are released into the cytosol for use within the cell. 3 Protein released into cytoplasm Ribosome
53 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 6 of 11). Protein synthesis 4 on fixed ribosomes occurs at the RER. The newly synthesized protein folds into its 3-dimensional shape. Rough ER 4 Cytosol
54 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 7 of 11). The proteins are 5 then modified within the ER. Regions of the ER then bud off forming transport vesicles containing modified proteins and glycoproteins. 5 Transport vesicle
55 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 8 of 11). The transport 6 vesicles carry the proteins and glycoproteins generated in the ER toward the Golgi apparatus. The transport vesicles then fuse to create the forming cis face ( receiving side ) of the Golgi apparatus. Cisternae 6 Forming (cis) face
56 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 9 of 11). Multiple transport 7 vesicles combine to form cisternae on the cis face. Further protein and glycoprotein modification and packaging occur as the cisternae move toward the maturing (trans) face. Small transport vesicles return resident Golgi proteins to the forming cis face for reuse. Cisternae 7 Forming (cis) face Maturing (trans) face
57 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 10 of 11). 8 The maturing trans face ( shipping side ) generates vesicles that carry modified proteins away from the Golgi apparatus. One type of vesicle becomes a lysosome, which contains digestive enzymes. 8 Lysosome Maturing (trans) face
58 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 11 of 11). Two other types of 9 vesicles proceed to the plasma membrane: secretory and membrane renewal. Secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and empty their products outside the cell by exocytosis. Membrane renewal vesicles add new lipids and proteins to the plasma membrane. Secretory vesicle Exocytosis at cell surface Maturing (trans) face 9 Membrane renewal vesicle Membrane renewal
59 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Lysosomes Powerful enzyme-containing vesicles Lyso- = dissolve, soma = body Primary lysosome Formed by Golgi apparatus and inactive enzymes Secondary lysosome Lysosome fused with damaged organelle Digestive enzymes activated Toxic chemicals isolated
60 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Lysosomes Functions 1. Clean up inside cells 2. Autolysis
61 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Clean Up Inside Cells Break down large molecules Attack bacteria Recycle damaged organelles Eject wastes by exocytosis
62 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Autolysis Auto- = self, lysis = break Self-destruction of damaged cells Lysosome membranes break down Digestive enzymes released Cell decomposes Cellular materials recycle
63 Figure 3-8 Lysosome Functions. Lysosome activation occurs when: 1 Golgi apparatus Damaged organelle 2 A primary lysosome fuses with the membrane of another organelle, such as a mitochondrion Autolysis liberates digestive enzymes 3 Primary lysosome 1 Secondary lysosome A primary lysosome fuses with an endosome containing fluid or solid materials from outside the cell Reabsorption 2 Endosome Reabsorption 3 The lysosomal membrane breaks down during autolysis following injury to, or death of, the cell Secondary lysosome Extracellular solid or fluid Endocytosis Exocytosis ejects residue Exocytosis ejects residue
64 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Peroxisomes Are enzyme-containing vesicles Break down fatty acids, organic compounds Produce hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) Replicate by division
65 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Membrane Flow A continuous exchange of membrane parts by vesicles All membranous organelles (except mitochondria) Allows adaptation and change
66 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Mitochondria Have smooth outer membrane and inner membrane with numerous folds (cristae) Matrix Fluid around cristae Mitochondrion takes chemical energy from food (glucose) Produces energy molecule ATP
67 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Mitochondrial Energy Production Glycolysis Glucose to pyruvic acid (in cytosol) Citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle and the tricarboxylic acid cycle, or TCA cycle) Pyruvic acid to CO 2 (in matrix) Electron transport chain Inner mitochondrial membrane
68 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Mitochondrial Energy Production Called aerobic metabolism (cellular respiration) Mitochondria use oxygen to break down food and produce ATP Glucose + oxygen + ADP carbon dioxide + water + ATP
69 Figure 3-9a Mitochondria. Inner membrane Organic molecules and O 2 Outer membrane CO 2 ATP Matrix Cristae Enzymes Mitochondrial Matrix ribosomes Cristae Cytosol Outer membrane Mitochondrion TEM 46,332 a Shown here is the three-dimensional organization and a color-enhanced TEM of a typical mitochondrion in longitudinal section.
70 Figure 3-9b Mitochondria. CYTOSOL Glucose Glycolysis Pyruvate ATP CO 2 b This is an overview of the role of mitochondria in energy production. Mitochondria absorb oxygen and short carbon chains, such as pyruvate, and they generate carbon dioxide, ATP, and water. MATRIX Citric Acid Cycle ADP + phosphate H MITOCHONDRION Enzymes and coenzymes of cristae O 2 H 2 O
71 3-3 Cell Nucleus Nucleus Largest organelle The cell s control center Nuclear envelope Double membrane around the nucleus Perinuclear space Between the two layers of the nuclear envelope Nuclear pores Communication passages
72 Figure 3-10a The Nucleus. Nucleoplasm Chromatin Nucleolus Nuclear envelope Nuclear pore a Important nuclear structures are shown here. Nucleus TEM 4800
73 Figure 3-10b The Nucleus. Nuclear pore Perinuclear space Nuclear envelope b A nuclear pore is a large protein complex that spans the nuclear envelope.
74 Figure 3-10c The Nucleus. Nuclear pores Inner membrane of nuclear envelope Broken edge of outer membrane Outer membrane of nuclear envelope Nucleus Freeze fracture SEM 9240 c This cell was frozen and then broken apart to make its internal structures invisible. The technique, called freeze fracture or freeze-etching, provides a unique perspective on the internal organization of cells. The nuclear envelope and nuclear pores are visible. The fracturing process broke away part of the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope, and the cut edge of the nucleus can be seen.
75 3-3 Cell Nucleus Contents of the Nucleus DNA All information to build and run organisms Nucleoplasm Fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides, and some RNA Nuclear matrix Support filaments
76 3-3 Cell Nucleus Contents of the Nucleus Nucleoli Are related to protein production Are made of RNA, enzymes, and histones Synthesize rrna and ribosomal subunits Nucleosomes DNA coiled around histones
77 3-3 Cell Nucleus Contents of the Nucleus Chromatin Loosely coiled DNA (cells not dividing) Chromosomes Tightly coiled DNA (cells dividing)
78 Figure 3-11 The Organization of DNA within the Nucleus. Nucleus Sister chromatids Kinetochore Centromere Supercoiled region Cell prepared for division Visible chromosome Nondividing cell Chromatin in nucleus DNA double helix Nucleosome Histones
79 3-3 Cell Nucleus Information Storage in the Nucleus DNA Instructions for every protein in the body Gene DNA instructions for one protein Genetic code The chemical language of DNA instructions Sequence of bases (A, T, C, G) Triplet code 3 bases = 1 amino acid
80 3-4 Protein Synthesis The Role of Gene Activation in Protein Synthesis The nucleus contains chromosomes Chromosomes contain DNA DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins Proteins determine cell structure and function
81 3-4 Protein Synthesis The Role of Gene Activation in Protein Synthesis Gene activation uncoiling DNA to use it Promoter Terminator Transcription Copies instructions from DNA to mrna (in nucleus) RNA polymerase produces messenger RNA (mrna)
82 3-4 Protein Synthesis The Role of Gene Activation in Protein Synthesis Translation Ribosome reads code from mrna (in cytoplasm) Assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain Processing RER and Golgi apparatus produce protein
83 3-4 Protein Synthesis The Transcription of mrna A gene is transcribed to mrna in three steps 1. Gene activation 2. DNA to mrna 3. RNA processing
84 3-4 Protein Synthesis Step 1: Gene activation Uncoils DNA, removes histones Start (promoter) and stop codes on DNA mark location of gene Coding strand is code for protein Template strand is used by RNA polymerase molecule
85 3-4 Protein Synthesis Step 2: DNA to mrna Enzyme RNA polymerase transcribes DNA Binds to promoter (start) sequence Reads DNA code for gene Binds nucleotides to form messenger RNA (mrna) mrna duplicates DNA coding strand, uracil replaces thymine
86 3-4 Protein Synthesis Step 3: RNA processing At stop signal, mrna detaches from DNA molecule Code is edited (RNA processing) Unnecessary codes (introns) removed Good codes (exons) spliced together Triplet of three nucleotides (codon) represents one amino acid
87 Complementary triplets Figure 3-12 mrna Transcription. DNA Template strand Coding strand RNA polymerase Codon 1 mrna strand Promoter Codon 2 Gene Triplet 1 Triplet Codon 1 Codon 3 Codon 4 (stop codon) Triplet 3 3 RNA nucleotide Triplet 4 4 After transcription, the two DNA strands reassociate KEY Adenine Guanine Cytosine Uracil (RNA) Thymine (DNA)
88 3-4 Protein Synthesis Translation mrna moves: From the nucleus through a nuclear pore mrna moves: To a ribosome in cytoplasm surrounded by amino acids mrna binds to ribosomal subunits trna delivers amino acids to mrna
89 3-4 Protein Synthesis Translation trna anticodon binds to mrna codon One mrna codon translates to one amino acid Enzymes join amino acids with peptide bonds Polypeptide chain has specific sequence of amino acids At stop codon, components separate
90 Figure 3-13 The Process of Translation (Part 1 of 5). NUCLEUS DNA mrna 1 Binding of Small Ribosomal Subunit First amino acid (methionine) Anticodon Transfer RNA (trna) Small ribosomal subunit trna binding sites Start codon mrna strand KEY Adenine Guanine Cytosine Translation begins when the mrna strand binds to a small ribosomal subunit near its P site, one of three adjacent trna binding sites. A trna then binds to the P site and to the start codon on the mrna strand. Binding occurs between three nucleotides of the start codon and the three complementary nucleotides in a segment of the trna strand known as the anticodon. Uracil
91 Figure 3-13 The Process of Translation (Part 2 of 5). 2 Formation of Functional Ribosome Large ribosomal subunit The small and large ribosomal subunits then interlock around the mrna strand, forming a functional ribosome. The initiation complex is now complete and protein synthesis can proceed. The trna in the P site holds what will become the first amino acid of a peptide chain. The adjacent A site is where an additional trna can bind to the mrna strand. More than 20 kinds of transfer RNA exist, each with a different nucleotide Sequence in the anticodon. Each trna carries an amino acid, and there is at least one trna anticodon that corresponds to each of the amino acids used in protein synthesis.
92 Figure 3-13 The Process of Translation (Part 3 of 5). 3 Formation of Peptide Bond Peptide bond When a complementary trna binds to the A site, ribosomal enzymes remove the amino acid from the trna at the P site and attach it to the amino acid delivered to the A site by forming a peptide bond.
93 Figure 3-13 The Process of Translation (Part 4 of 5). 4 Extension of Polypeptide The ribosome then moves one codon farther along the mrna strand. The trna that was in the P site (anticodon UAC) now enters the E site, from where it is released into the cytoplasm. The released trna can now bind another amino acid of the same type and repeat the cycle.
94 Figure 3-13 The Process of Translation (Part 5 of 5). 5 Completion of Polypeptide Large ribosomal subunit Completed polypeptide Small ribosomal subunit Stop codon mrna strand Termination occurs as a protein releasing factor, not a trna molecule, recognizes the stop codon. A ribosomal enzyme then breaks the bond between the polypeptide and the trna in the P site, releasing the polypeptide. Other ribosomal enzymes separate the ribosomal subunits and free the intact strand of mrna.
95 Table 3-1 Examples of Genetic Code.
96 3-4 Protein Synthesis How the Nucleus Controls Cell Structure and Function 1. Direct control through synthesis of: Structural proteins Secretions (environmental response) 2. Indirect control over metabolism through enzymes
97 3-5 Diffusion and Osmosis Membrane Transport The plasma (cell) membrane is a barrier, but: Nutrients must get in Products and wastes must get out Permeability determines what moves in and out of a cell, and a membrane that: Lets nothing in or out is impermeable Lets anything pass is freely permeable Restricts movement is selectively permeable
98 3-5 Diffusion and Osmosis Membrane Transport Plasma membrane is selectively permeable Allows some materials to move freely Restricts other materials Selective permeability restricts materials based on: Size Electrical charge Molecular shape Lipid solubility
99 3-5 Diffusion and Osmosis Membrane Transport Transport through a plasma membrane can be: Active (requiring energy and ATP) Passive (no energy required) Diffusion (passive) Carrier-mediated transport (passive or active) Vesicular transport (active)
100 ANIMATION Membrane Transport: Diffusion
101 3-5 Diffusion and Osmosis Diffusion All molecules are constantly in motion Molecules in solution move randomly Random motion causes mixing Concentration is the amount of solute in a solvent Concentration gradient More solute in one part of a solvent than another
102 Figure 3-14 Diffusion. 1 Placing a colored sugar cube into a water-filled beaker establishes a steep concentration gradient As the cube begins to dissolve, many sugar and dye molecules are in one location, and none are elsewhere. With time, the sugar and dye molecules spread through the water. Eventually, the concentration gradient is eliminated and the molecules are evenly distributed throughout the solution.
103 3-5 Diffusion and Osmosis Factors Influencing Diffusion Distance the particle has to move Molecule Size Smaller is faster Temperature More heat, faster motion Concentration gradient The difference between high and low concentrations Electrical forces Opposites attract, like charges repel
104 3-5 Diffusion and Osmosis Diffusion across Plasma Membranes Can be simple or channel mediated Materials that diffuse through plasma membrane by simple diffusion Lipid-soluble compounds (alcohols, fatty acids, and steroids) Dissolved gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
105 3-5 Diffusion and Osmosis Diffusion across Plasma Membranes Channel-mediated diffusion Water-soluble compounds and ions Factors in channel-mediated diffusion Size Charge Interaction with the channel leak channels
106 Figure 3-15 Diffusion across the Plasma Membrane. EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse through the plasma membrane Plasma membrane Channel protein CYTOPLASM Large molecules that cannot diffuse through lipids cannot cross the plasma membrane unless they are transported by a carrier mechanism Small water-soluble molecules and ions diffuse through membrane channels
107 3-5 Diffusion and Osmosis Osmosis: A Special Case of Diffusion Osmosis is the diffusion of water across the cell membrane More solute molecules, lower concentration of water molecules Membrane must be freely permeable to water, selectively permeable to solutes Water molecules diffuse across membrane toward solution with more solutes Volume increases on the side with more solutes
108 Figure 3-16 Osmosis. 1 Two solutions containing different solute concentrations are separated by a selectively permeable membrane. Water molecules (small blue dots) begin to cross the membrane toward solution B, the solution with the higher concentration of solutes (large pink dots) 2 At equilibrium, the solute 3 concentrations on the two sides of the membrane are equal. The volume of solution B has increased at the expense of that of solution A. Volume increased Osmosis can be prevented by resisting the change in volume. The osmotic pressure of solution B is equal to the amount of hydrostatic pressure required to stop the osmotic flow. Applied force A B Water molecules Volume decreased Original level Volumes equal Solute molecules Selectively permeable membrane
109 Figure 3-16 Osmosis (Part 1 of 3). 1 Two solutions containing different solute concentrations are separated by a selectively permeable membrane. Water molecules (small blue dots) begin to cross the membrane toward solution B, the solution with the higher concentration of solutes (large pink dots) A B Water molecules Solute molecules Selectively permeable membrane
110 Figure 3-16 Osmosis (Part 2 of 3). 2 At equilibrium, the solute concentrations on the two sides of the membrane are equal. The volume of solution B has increased at the expense of that of solution A. Volume increased Volume decreased Original level
111 Figure 3-16 Osmosis (Part 3 of 3). 3 Osmosis can be prevented by resisting the change in volume. The osmotic pressure of solution B is equal to the amount of hydrostatic pressure required to stop the osmotic flow. Applied force Volumes equal
112 3-5 Diffusion and Osmosis Osmosis: A Special Case of Diffusion Osmotic pressure Is the force of a concentration gradient of water Equals the force (hydrostatic pressure) needed to block osmosis
113 3-5 Diffusion and Osmosis Osmolarity and Tonicity The osmotic effect of a solute on a cell Two fluids may have equal osmolarity, but different tonicity Isotonic (iso- = same, tonos = tension) A solution that does not cause osmotic flow of water in or out of a cell Hypotonic (hypo- = below) Has less solutes and loses water through osmosis Hypertonic (hyper- = above) Has more solutes and gains water by osmosis
114 3-5 Diffusion and Osmosis Osmolarity and Tonicity A cell in a hypotonic solution: Gains water Ruptures (hemolysis of red blood cells) A cell in a hypertonic solution: Loses water Shrinks (crenation of red blood cells)
115 Figure 3-17 Osmotic Flow across a Plasma Membrane. a Isotonic solution b Hypotonic solution c Hypertonic solution In an isotonic saline solution, no osmotic flow occurs, and the red blood cells appear normal. In a hypotonic solution, the water flows into the cell. The swelling may continue until the plasma membrane ruptures, or lyses. In a hypertonic solution, water moves out of the cell. The red blood cells shrivel and become crenated. Water molecules Solute molecules SEM of a normal RBC in an isotonic solution SEM of RBC in a hypotonic solution SEM of crenated RBCs in a hypertonic solution
116 Figure 3-17a Osmotic Flow across a Plasma Membrane. a Isotonic solution In an isotonic saline solution, no osmotic flow occurs, and the red blood cells appear normal. Water molecules Solute molecules SEM of a normal RBC in an isotonic solution
117 Figure 3-17b Osmotic Flow across a Plasma Membrane. b Hypotonic solution In a hypotonic solution, the water flows into the cell. The swelling may continue until the plasma membrane ruptures, or lyses. SEM of RBC in a hypotonic solution
118 Figure 3-17c Osmotic Flow across a Plasma Membrane. c Hypertonic solution In a hypertonic solution, water moves out of the cell. The red blood cells shrivel and become crenated. SEM of crenated RBCs in a hypertonic solution
119 3-6 Carriers and Vesicles Carrier-Mediated Transport Of ions and organic substrates Characteristics Specificity One transport protein, one set of substrates Saturation limits Rate depends on transport proteins, not substrate Regulation Cofactors such as hormones
120 3-6 Carriers and Vesicles Carrier-Mediated Transport Cotransport Two substances move in the same direction at the same time Countertransport One substance moves in while another moves out
121 3-6 Carriers and Vesicles Carrier-Mediated Transport Facilitated diffusion Passive Carrier proteins transport molecules too large to fit through channel proteins (glucose, amino acids) Molecule binds to receptor site on carrier protein Protein changes shape, molecules pass through Receptor site is specific to certain molecules
122 Figure 3-18 Facilitated Diffusion. EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Glucose molecule Receptor site Carrier protein CYTOPLASM Glucose released into cytoplasm
123 3-6 Carriers and Vesicles Carrier-Mediated Transport Active transport (primary or secondary) Active transport proteins Move substrates against concentration gradient Require energy, such as ATP Ion pumps move ions (Na +, K +, Ca 2+, Mg 2+ ) Exchange pump countertransports two ions at the same time
124 3-6 Carriers and Vesicles Carrier-Mediated Transport Primary active transport Sodium potassium exchange pump Active transport, carrier mediated Sodium ions (Na + ) out, potassium ions (K + ) in 1 ATP moves 3 Na + and 2 K +
125 Figure 3-19 The Sodium Potassium Exchange Pump. EXTRACELLULAR FLUID 3 Na + Sodium potassium exchange pump 2 K + ATP ADP CYTOPLASM
126 3-6 Carriers and Vesicles Carrier-Mediated Transport Secondary active transport Na + concentration gradient drives glucose transport ATP energy pumps Na + back out
127 Figure 3-20 Secondary Active Transport. Glucose molecule Sodium ion (Na + ) 2 K + Na + K + pump CYTOPLASM 3 Na + ADP ATP K +
128 3-6 Carriers and Vesicles Vesicular Transport (Bulk Transport) Materials move into or out of cell in vesicles Endocytosis (endo- = inside) is active transport using ATP Receptor mediated Pinocytosis Phagocytosis
129 3-6 Carriers and Vesicles Endocytosis Receptor-mediated endocytosis Receptors (glycoproteins) bind target molecules (ligands) Coated vesicle (endosome) carries ligands and receptors into the cell
130 Figure 3-21 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis. EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Ligands binding to receptors Ligands 1 Target molecules (ligands) bind to receptors in plasma membrane. 7 Exocytosis 1 Ligand receptors 2 Coated vesicle Endocytosis Areas coated with ligands form deep pockets in plasma membrane surface. Pockets pinch off, forming endosomes known as coated vesicles. 4 Coated vesicles fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes. 6 Ligands removed 5 Secondary lysosome 4 Primary lysosome 5 6 Ligands are removed and absorbed into the cytoplasm. The lysosomal and endosomal membranes separate. CYTOPLASM 7 The endosome fuses with the plasma membrane, and the receptors are again available for ligand binding.
131 3-6 Carriers and Vesicles Endocytosis Pinocytosis Endosomes drink extracellular fluid Phagocytosis Pseudopodia (pseudo- = false, pod- = foot) Engulf large objects in phagosomes Exocytosis (exo- = outside) Granules or droplets are released from the cell
132 Figure 3-22 Overview of Membrane Transport (Part 3 of 8). Diffusion Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. That is, the movement occurs down a concentration gradient (high to low). Factors Affecting Rate: Size of gradient, molecular size, electric charge, lipid solubility, temperature, and the presence of membrane channel proteins Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane CO 2 Example: When the concentration of CO 2 inside a cell is greater than outside the cell, the CO 2 diffuses out of the cell and into the extracellular fluid. Substances Involved: Gases, small inorganic ions and molecules, lipid-soluble materials
133 Figure 3-22 Overview of Membrane Transport (Part 4 of 8). Osmosis Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. Movement occurs toward higher solute concentration because that is where the concentration of water is lower. Osmosis continues until the concentration gradient is eliminated. Factors Affecting Rate: Concentration gradient; opposing pressure Example: If the solute concentration outside a cell is greater than inside the cell, water molecules will move across the plasma membrane into the extracellular fluid. Substances Involved: Water only Water Solute
134 Figure 3-22 Overview of Membrane Transport (Part 5 of 8). Facilitated diffusion Glucose Facilitated diffusion is the movement of materials across a membrane by a carrier protein. Movement follows the concentration gradient. Factors Affecting Rate: Concentration gradient, availability of carrier proteins Substances Involved: Glucose and amino acids Receptor site Carrier protein Carrier protein releases glucose into cytoplasm Example: Nutrients that are insoluble in lipids and too large to fit through membrane channels may be transported across the plasma membrane by carrier proteins. Many carrier proteins move a specific substance in one direction only, either into or out of the cell.
135 Figure 3-22 Overview of Membrane Transport (Part 6 of 8). Active transport Active transport requires carrier proteins that move specific substances across a membrane against their concentration gradient. If the carrier moves one solute in one direction and another solute in the opposite direction, it is called an exchange pump. Factors Affecting Rate: Availability of carrier protein, substrate, and ATP Substances Involved: Na +, K +, Ca 2+, Mg 2+ ; other solutes in special cases Extracellular fluid 2 K + Sodium potassium exchange pump ATP Cytoplasm ADP 3 Na + Example: The sodium potassium exchange pump. One ATP molecule is hydrolyzed for each 3 sodium ions that are ejected from the cell, while 2 potassium ions are reclaimed.
136 Figure 3-22 Overview of Membrane Transport (Part 7 of 8). Endocytosis Endocytosis is the packaging of extracellular materials into a vesicle for transport into the cell. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis Extracellular fluid Receptor proteins Vesicle containing target molecules Cytoplasm In receptormediated endocytosis, target Target molecules Example: Cholesterol and iron ions are transported this way. molecules bind to receptor proteins on the membrane surface, triggering vesicle formation. Factors Affecting Rate: Number of receptors on the plasma membrane and the concentration of target molecules Substances Involved: Target molecules called ligands Pinocytosis In pinocytosis, vesicles form at the plasma membrane and bring fluids and small molecules into the cell. This process is often called cell drinking. Pinosome Cell Pinocytic vesicle forming Example: Once the vesicle is inside the cytoplasm, water and small molecules enter the cell across the vesicle membrane. Factors Affecting Rate: Stimulus and mechanism not understood Substances Involved: Extracellular fluid, with dissolved molecules such as nutrients Phagocytosis In phagocytosis, vesicles form at the plasma membrane to bring solid particles into the cell. This process is often called cell eating. Factors Affecting Rate: Presence of pathogens and cellular debris Substances Involved: Bacteria, viruses, cellular debris, and other foreign material Pseudopodium extends to surround object Cell Phagosome Example: Large particles are brought into the cell by cytoplasmic extensions (called pseudopodia) that engulf the particle and pull it into the cell.
137 Figure 3-22 Overview of Membrane Transport (Part 8 of 8). Exocytosis In exocytosis, intracellular vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to release fluids and/or solids from the cells. Factors Affecting Rate: Stimulus and mechanism incompletely understood Substances Involved: Fluid and cellular wastes; secretory products from some cells Cell Material ejected from cell Example: Cellular wastes in vesicles are ejected from the cell.
138 3-7 Transmembrane Potential Transmembrane Potential Charges are separated creating a potential difference Unequal charge across the plasma membrane is transmembrane potential Resting potential ranges from 10 mv to 100 mv, depending on cell type
139 3-8 Cell Life Cycle Cell Life Cycle Most of a cell s life is spent in a nondividing state (interphase) Body (somatic) cells divide in three stages DNA replication duplicates genetic material exactly Mitosis divides genetic material equally Cytokinesis divides cytoplasm and organelles into two daughter cells
140 3-8 Cell Life Cycle DNA Replication Helicases unwind the DNA strands DNA polymerase 1. Promotes bonding between the nitrogenous bases of the DNA strand and complementary DNA nucleotides dissolved in the nucleoplasm 2. Links the nucleotides by covalent bonds DNA polymerase works in one direction Ligases piece together sections of DNA
141 A&P FLIX: DNA Replication
142 Figure 3-23 DNA Replication (Part 1 of 3). 1 DNA replication begins when helicase enzymes unwind the strands and disrupt the hydrogen bonds between the bases. As the strands unwind, molecules of DNA polymerase bind to the exposed nitrogenous bases. This enzyme (1) promotes bonding between the nitrogenous bases and each separated strand with complementary DNA nucleotides in the nucleoplasm and (2) links the nucleotides by covalent bonds. KEY Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine 2 1 Each DNA molecule consists of two nucleotide strands joined by hydrogen bonds between their complementary nitrogenous bases. Segment DNA nucleotide Segment 1 2 As the two original strands gradually separate, DNA polymerase binds to the strands. DNA polymerase can work in only one direction along a strand of DNA, but the two strands in a DNA molecule are oriented in opposite directions. The DNA polymerase bound to the upper strand shown here adds nucleotides to make a single, continuous complementary copy that grows toward the zipper
143 Figure 3-23 DNA Replication (Part 2 of 3) KEY Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine Segment 2 DNA nucleotide Segment 1 4 Thus, a second molecule of DNA polymerase must bind closer to the point of unzipping and assemble a complementary copy that grows in sequence until it bumps into the segment created by the first DNA polymerase. Enzymes called ligases (liga, to tie) then splice together the two DNA segments DNA polymerase on the other original strand, however, can work only away from the unzipping site. In the lower strand, the first DNA polymerase to bind to it must work from left to right, adding nucleotides in the sequence But as the original strands continue to unzip, additional nucleotides are continuously exposed. This molecule of DNA polymerase cannot go into reverse. It can only continue working from left to right.
144 Figure 3-23 DNA Replication (Part 3 of 3). 5 Eventually, the unzipping completely separates the original strands. The copying and last splicing are completed, and two identical DNA molecules are formed. Once the DNA has been replicated, the centrioles duplicated, and the necessary enzymes and proteins have been synthesized, the cell leaves interphase and is ready to proceed to mitosis. Duplicated DNA double helices
145 3-8 Cell Life Cycle Interphase The nondividing period G-zero (G 0 ) phase specialized cell functions only G 1 phase cell growth, organelle duplication, protein synthesis S phase DNA replication and histone synthesis G 2 phase finishes protein synthesis and centriole replication
146 Figure 3-24 Stages of a Cell s Life Cycle (Part 1 of 11).
147 Figure 3-24 Stages of a Cell s Life Cycle (Part 7 of 11). THE CELL CYCLE G 0 An interphase cell in the G 0 phase is not preparing for division, but is performing all of the other functions appropriate for that particular cell type. Some mature cells, such as skeletal muscle cells and most neurons, remain in G 0 indefinitely and never divide. In contrast, stem cells, which divide repeatedly with very brief interphase periods, never enter G 0.
148 Figure 3-24 Stages of a Cell s Life Cycle (Part 3 of 11). INTERPHASE Most cells spend only a small part of their time actively engaged in cell division. Somatic cells send the majority of their functional lives in a state known as interphase. During interphase, a cell performs all its normal functions and, if necessary, prepares for cell division. A cell that is ready to divide first enters the G 1 phase. In this phase, the cell makes enough mitochondria, cytoskeletal elements, endoplasmic reticula, ribosomes, Golgi membranes, and cytosol for two functional cells. Centriole replication begins in G 1 and commonly continues until G 2. In cells dividing at top speed, G 1 may last just 8 12 hours. Such cells use all their energy on mitosis, and all other activities cease. When G 1 lasts for days, weeks, or months, preparation for mitosis occurs as the cells perform their normal functions. G 1 Normal cell functions plus cell growth, duplication of organelles, protein synthesis THE CELL CYCLE
149 Figure 3-24 Stages of a Cell s Life Cycle (Part 4 of 11). When the activities of G 1 have been completed, the cell enters the S phase. Over the next 6 8 hours, the cell duplicates its chromosomes. This involves DNA replication and the synthesis of histones and other proteins in the nucleus. S DNA replication, synthesis of histones THE CELL CYCLE
150 Figure 3-24 Stages of a Cell s Life Cycle (Part 5 of 11). THE CELL CYCLE G 2 Protein synthesis Once DNA replication has ended, there is a brief (2 5 hour) G 2 phase devoted to last-minute protein synthesis and to the completion of centriole replication.
151 3-8 Cell Life Cycle Mitosis Divides duplicated DNA into two sets of chromosomes DNA coils tightly into chromatids Chromatids connect at a centromere Protein complex around centromere is kinetochore
152 Figure 3-24 Stages of a Cell s Life Cycle (Part 6 of 11). THE CELL CYCLE Centrioles in centrosome MITOSIS Nucleus M Phase MITOSIS AND CYTOKINESIS Interphase During interphase, the DNA strands are loosely coiled and chromosomes cannot be seen.
153 3-8 Cell Life Cycle Mitosis Prophase Nucleoli disappear Centriole pairs move to cell poles Microtubules (spindle fibers) extend between centriole pairs Nuclear envelope disappears Spindle fibers attach to kinetochore Metaphase Chromosomes align in a central plane (metaphase plate)
154 Figure 3-24 Stages of a Cell s Life Cycle (Part 9 of 11). Centrioles (two pairs) Astral rays and spindle fibers Chromosome with two sister chromatids Chromosomal microtubules Metaphase plate Early prophase Late prophase Metaphase Prophase (PRO-faz; pro, before) begins when the chromosomes coil so tightly they become visible as single structures under a light microscope. An array of microtubules called spindle fibers extends between the centriole pairs. Smaller microtubules called astral rays radiate into the cytoplasm. As a result of DNA replication during the S phase, two copies of each chromosome now exist. Each copy, called a chromatid (KRO-ma-tid), is connected to its duplicate copy at a single point, the centromere (SEN-tro-mer). Kinetochores (ki-ne-to-korz) are the protein-bound areas of the centromere; they attach to spindle fibers forming chromosomal microtubules. Metaphase (MET-a-faz; meta, after) begins as the chromatids move to a narrow central zone called the metaphase plate. Metaphase ends when all the chromatids are aligned in the plane of the metaphase plate.
155 3-8 Cell Life Cycle Mitosis Anaphase Microtubules pull chromosomes apart Daughter chromosomes group near centrioles Telophase Nuclear membranes re-form Chromosomes uncoil Nucleoli reappear Cell has two complete nuclei
156 A&P FLIX: Mitosis
157 Figure 3-24 Stages of a Cell s Life Cycle (Part 10 of 11). The two daughter chromosomes are pulled apart and drawn to opposite ends of the cell along the spindle apparatus (the complex of spindle fibers). Cleavage furrow Daughter cells Anaphase Anaphase (AN-a-faz; ana-, apart) begins when the centromere of each chromatid pair splits and the chromatids separate. The two daughter chromosomes are Now pulled toward opposite ends of the cell along the chromosomal microtubules. Telophase During telophase TEL-o-faz; telo-, end), each new cell prepares to return to the interphase state. The nuclear membranes re-form, the nuclei enlarge, and the chromosomes gradually uncoil. This stage marks the end of mitosis. Cytokinesis Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm into two daughter cells. Cytokinesis usually begins with the formation of a cleavage furrow and continues throughout telophase. The completion of cytokinesis marks the end of cell division.
158 3-8 Cell Life Cycle Cytokinesis Division of the cytoplasm Cleavage furrow around metaphase plate Membrane closes, producing daughter cells
159 Figure 3-24 Stages of a Cell s Life Cycle (Part 8 of 11). A dividing cell held in place by a sucker pipe to the left and being injected with a needle from the right.
160 3-8 Cell Life Cycle The Mitotic Rate and Energy Use Rate of cell division Slower mitotic rate means longer cell life Cell division requires energy (ATP) Muscle cells, neurons rarely divide Exposed cells (skin and digestive tract) live only days or hours replenished by stem cells
161 3-9 Regulation of the Cell Life Cycle Cell Division Normally, cell division balances cell loss Increased cell division Internal factors (M-phase promoting factor, MPF) Extracellular chemical factors (growth factors) Decreased cell division Repressor genes (faulty repressors cause cancers) Worn out telomeres (terminal DNA segments)
162 Table 3-2 Chemical Factors Affecting Cell Division.
163 3-10 Cell Division and Cancer Cancer Develops in Steps Abnormal cell Primary tumor Metastasis Secondary tumor
164 3-10 Cell Division and Cancer Tumor (Neoplasm) Enlarged mass of cells Abnormal cell growth and division Benign tumor Contained, not life threatening unless large Malignant tumor Spreads into surrounding tissues (invasion) Starts new tumors (metastasis)
165 Figure 3-25 The Development of Cancer. Abnormal cell Cell divisions Primary tumor cells Growth of blood vessels into tumor Secondary tumor cells Invasion Penetration Escape Cell divisions Circulation
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