Mercer County Community College Division of Science and Health Professions

Transcription

1 Objectives Chapter 6: Cellular Biology 1. Examine cells as the fundamental units of life 2. Contrast the utility of light microscopes and scanning and transmission electron microscopes 3. View the technique of centrifugation in the separation of sub-cellular components. Examine a homogenate, supernatant, and pellet 4. Compare the architecture of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells 5. Distinguish between a nucleoid region and a nucleus 6. Describe the architecture of the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes and explain how this structure is a selectively permeable 7. Explain why a high surface area to volume ratio is advantageous for cells 8. Detail the components of eukaryotic nuclear membrane including double layer, pores, and lamina 9. Find and describe the nucleolus, chromatin (and chromosomes) 10. View cellular locations of ribosomes (bound and free) and describe role in protein synthesis 11. List components of the endomembrane system: endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles 12. Examine cellular location of smooth ER and rough ER and compare synthetic functions of each. 13. Explain why RER is both a membrane factory, a protein modifier, and a maker of vesicles 14. Examine cisternae, and cis and trans faces of the Golgi apparatus. View the Golgi and a protein modifier and its synthesis of transport vesicles from the trans face. 15. Analyze the lysosome with respect to its role in degradation and recycling of macromolecules 16. Associate phagocytosis and the formation of a food vacuole with lysosome activity 17. Discuss the utility of contractile vacuoles in the regulation of water content in some Protista 18. View a plant central vacuole and note its large size and role in storage of molecules, water, and isolation of harmful materials from the cell 19. Examine the architecture and function of mitochondria including the inner and outer membranes, matrix, cristae, mtdna, enzymes involved in the synthesis of ATP 20. Identify photosynthesis as the reaction that occurs within the plant chloroplast/thylakoid 21. Locate perixosomes in the cytoplasm and detail their role in the detoxification of cellular toxins. Example: hydrogen peroxide and catalase enzyme 22. Discuss the role of the cytoskeleton in the maintenance of cellular structure, organization, and movement (using motor proteins) 23. Contrast microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments 24. Locate cellular centrosomes and examine the 9 microtubule-based double centrioles 25. View sperm and cilia as motile structures employing microtubule architecture 26. Examine the extracellular structures of cell wall (plants), extracellular matrix and cell junctions 27. Describe the structure and function of cell walls 28. Describe the function of glycoprotein and integrins in the extracellular matrix 29. Compare cell junctions employing desmosomes, tight junctions, gap junctions, plasmodermata 30. Note that emergent properties arise when cellular components function together 1

2 Objectives Chapter 7: The Plasma Membrane 1. Examine the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane including membrane fluidity 2. Examine the role of fatty acids, cholesterol, and phospholipids in the plasma membrane 3. Compare membrane proteins: peripheral, integral, transmembrane. 4. Describe 6 main functions of membrane proteins 5. Discuss the role of glycoproteins in cell-cell recognition 6. Explain why cell membranes are sided and the role of the ER and Golgi in this aspect 7. Examine membrane selective permeability 8. Describe how transport proteins, aquaporins, carrier proteins, and channel proteins allow the passage of certain molecules through the plasma membrane 9. Discuss diffusion as a passive transport process and its importance in the passage of molecules across cell membranes 10. Detail the importance of osmosis to cells and the difference in cellular response to isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions in animal and plant cells 11. Describe facilitated diffusion as a passive process that uses transport proteins 12. Examine the disease cystinuria as a malfunction in a transport process 13. Contrast active and passive transport processes 14. Detail the sodium/potassium pump as an active transport process and the role of electrochemical gradients in membrane potential 15. Explain how cotransport of a solute indirectly drives transport of another solute 16. Examine the bulk transport processes of endocytosis and exocytosis 17. Examine the role of the lysosome in phagocytosis 18. Discuss the process of pinocytosis 19. Examine the binding of ligand to receptor in receptor-mediated endocytosis Objectives Chapter 8: Metabolism 1. Define metabolism as an emergent property of life 2. Detail a metabolic pathway and explain the role of enzymes in metabolism 3. Compare catabolic and anabolic processes 4. Define the terms: energy, kinetic energy, heat energy, potential energy, chemical energy 5. Explain the first law of thermodynamics, the principle of conservation of energy, and how this related to metabolism 6. Explain the second law of thermodynamics and its importance in biology 7. Define free energy and compare exergonic and endergonic reactions in terms of Δ G 8. View the hydrolysis of ATP and release of energy 9. Describe the characteristics of a spontaneous reaction 10. Examine cellular respiration, C 6 H 12 O O 2 6 CO H 2 O as an exergonic reaction 11. Examine photosynthesis, 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O (+ light energy) C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 as an endergonic reaction 12. Describe the cell as a system not in equilibrium as an open system 13. Analyze the ability of cells to couple reactions to do mechanical, chemical, and transport work 14. View the structure of ATP and the hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate to release energy 2

3 15. Examine the cellular mechanism of phosphorylation 16. Show how ADP is phosphorylated to regenerate ATP 17. Explain how enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers 18. Examine the effect of temperature and ph on enzyme activity 19. Define: substrate, reactant, product, enzyme, active site, induced fit, and enzyme-substrate complex 20. View the role of cofactors and coenzymes in enzyme activity 21. Compare competitive inhibitors and non-competitive inhibitors in enzyme action 22. Explain how allosterically regulated enzymes have active and inactive forms 23. Discuss the mechanism of feedback inhibition in the regulation of metabolic processes Objectives Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration 1. Examine the connectedness between photosynthesis in plants and cellular respiration in animals 2. Compare the exergonic breakdown of molecules in fermentation, aerobic respiration, and anaerobic respiration 3. Review cellular respiration C 6 H 12 O O 2 6 CO H 2 O + Energy (ATP + heat) involving the oxidation of glucose and the reduction of oxygen 4. Discuss redox reactions in which electrons are transferred between reactants (oxidation and reduction) and compare reducing and oxidizing agents 5. Describe the role of NAD+, NADH, O2 in the formation of ATP in cellular respiration 6. Discuss 3 processes in cellular respiration: glycol sis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation, relative amounts of ATP production, and cellular location 7. Examine the oxidation of glucose to private in glycol sis 8. Examine the mechanism of the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) 9. Review the role of the electron transport chain in the mitochondrial cristae 10. Describe chemiosmosis and the role of ATP synthase in the mitochondria 11. Relate the sequence glucose NADH electron transport chain proton-motive force ATP to cellular respiration 12. Describe the conversion of pyruvate to ethanol in alcohol fermentation in yeast 13. Describe the conversion of pyruvate to lactic acid in fungi, bacteria, and human muscle cells 14. Contrast facultative and obligate anaerobes 15. Examine catabolic and anabolic processes and the role of proteins, fatty acids, and glucose 16. Examine the regulation of cellular respiration via feedback mechanisms Objectives Chapter 10: Photosynthesis 1. Explain why plants are autotrophs and why photosynthesis is so important to the rest of the living world. 6 CO H 2 O + Light energy C 6 H 12 O O H 2 O 2. Provide examples of heterotrophic consumers 3. Describe the role of the following structures in photosynthesis: chloroplast, stomata, mesophyll, thylakoids, granna, stroma, photons, photosynthetic pigments 4. View photosynthesis as a redox reaction 3

4 5. Examine the light reaction and Calvin cycle 6. View the pigments chlorophyll a, arytenoids, and chlorophyll b and their role as light harvesting pigments 7. Compare photo system I and photosystem II 8. Compare reactions in mitochondria and chloroplasts 9. Describe the Calvin cycle 10. Examine the role of photorespiration in consuming O 2 and organic fuel and releasing CO Describe C4 plants and CAM plants Objectives Chapter 12: Cell Division 1. View cell division as a component of the cell cycle 2. Explain why mitosis generates genetically identical daughter cells 3. Compare somatic and gametic cells 4. Distinguish between chromosomes, chromatin, centromeres, centrioles, centrosomes, and chromatids 5. Contrast the processes of mitosis and cytokinesis 6. Examine the events of G 1, S, and G 2 in interphase. Include a description of G o 7. Describe the structure and function of the mitotic spindle in the various phases of cell division. Include centrosomes, microtubules, asters, kinetochore, and centromere. 8. Describe in detail the events that occur in prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase 9. Examine the role of the cleavage furrow and cell plate (plant cells) in cytokinesis 10. View binary fission as a mechanism of cell division in bacteria 11. Describe the role of checkpoint proteins in the regulation of the cell cycle 12. Discuss how the G 1 checkpoint regulates cell progression in the cell cycle 13. Describe the role of cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases in the molecular regulation of the cell cycle 14. Examine the external factors that influence the cell cycle including growth factors, anchorage dependence and contact inhibition 15. Examine 3 features of cancer cells that indicate they have bypassed normal cell cycle controls. 16. View the process of transformation of normal cell to cancer cell and contrast between benign and malignant growths which may metastasize. 4

5 Vocabulary words Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell Light microscope Scanning electron microscope Transmission electron microscope Ultracentrifuge Homogenate Pellet Supernatant Prokaryotic cell Nucleoid region Eukaryotic cell Organelle Cytosol Cytoplasm Plasma membrane Phospholipid bilayer Surface to volume ratio Nucleus Nuclear membrane Nuclear pore Nuclear lamina Chromatin Chromosomes Nucleolus rrna Ribosomes Endoplasmic reticulum smooth and rough Golgi apparatus cisternae, cis and trans Chapter 7: Selective permeability Amphipathic protein Fluid mosaic model Phospholipid polar head, non-polar tail Membrane fluidity Lateral protein movement Cholesterol Integral - transmembrane protein Channel protein- aquaporin, gated ion Carrier protein glucose transporter Peripheral protein Passive transport Diffusion Osmosis Isotonic Hypotonic Hypertonic Secretory vesicle Lysosome - autophagy Phagocytosis Food vacuole Contractile vacuole Central vacuole Mitochondria cristae Chloroplast Thylakoid Stroma Granum Peroxisome Cytoskeleton Motor protein Thin, thick, intermediate filaments Centrosome Centriole Cilia Flagella Extra cellular matrix Cell wall Plasmodesmata Integrin Intercellular junction Gap junction Desmosome Osmoregulation Turgid Flaccid Plasmolysis Facilitated diffusion Active transport Na+/K+ pump Membrane potential Electrochemical gradient Bulk transport Phagocytosis Endocytosis Pinocytosis Receptor mediated endocytosis Exocytosis 5

6 Chapter 8: An Introduction to Metabolism Metabolism Metabolic pathway Catabolic pathway Energy Kinetic energy Potential energy Chemical energy First law of thermodynamics Principle of conservation of energy Second law of thermodynamics Spontaneous process Free energy Δ G Negative Δ G Exergonic reaction Endergonic reaction Reactants Products Equilibrium ATP Phosphorylation Enzyme Catalyst Free energy of activation E A Transition state Substrate Enzyme/substrate complex Active site Cofactor Coenzyme Competitive inhibitor Noncompetitive inhibitor Allosteric regulation Feedback inhibition Chapter 9: Cellular respiration Cellular respiration Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration Glycolysis Pyruvate NADH Glucose Energy investment phase Energy payoff phase Citric acid cycle (Krebs) Acetyl CoA Redox reaction Mitochondrial matrix Chapter 10: Photosynthesis Photosynthesis Autotroph Heterotroph Chloroplast Chlorophyll Stomata Mesophyll Thylakoid Granum Stroma Light reaction Thylakoid membrane Oxidative phosphorylation Electron transport chain Cytochrome H+ ions H+ gradient Chemiosmosis ATP synthase Fermentation Alcohol fermentation Lactic acid fermentation Obligate anaerobe Facultative anaerobe Calvin cycle (dark, light-independent reaction) Carbon fixation Visible spectrum Photon Chlorophyll b Chlorophyll a Carotenoid Accessory pigment Photosystem Light harvesting complex Reaction center Cellulose 6

7 Reactions Formation of ATP ADP + P ATP Cellular respiration C 6 H 12 O O 2 6 CO H 2 O + Energy (=36 ATP + heat) Glycolysis Citric Acid Cycle Alcohol fermentation Lactic acid fermentation Glucose + 2NAD + 2ATP 2 pyruvate+ 2NADH + 4ATP (=2 ATP) 2 Pyruvate + NAD+ + FADH 2ATP + NADH + FADH2 + CO2 + H2O Pyruvate + NADH ethanol + NAD+ + CO2 Pyruvate + NADH lactate + NAD+ Photosynthesis 6 CO H 2 O + Light energy C 6 H 12 O O 2 Glycolysis Occurs in the cytoplasm Glucose oxidized: 1 glucose 2 ATP and 2 pyruvate NAD+ reduced to NADH No O2 required, no CO2 produced Energy investment and energy payoff phases (net gain 2 ATP) Citric Acid cycle Occurs in mitochondrial matrix 2 ATP per 1 glucose (2 pyruvate) CO2 generated NADH and FADH2 (electron donors) Pyruvate converted to acetyl CoA prior to cycle Oxidative phosphorylation Occurs in mitochondrial cristae NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to electron transport chain Cytochrome proteins involved Oxygen required H+ gradient drives ATP synthase ~36 ATP per glucose total for cellular respiration Fermentation Occurs in cytoplasm Anaerobic Uses pyruvate Generates alcohol (or lactic acid) Generates NAD+ to be used in sustaining glycolysis Photosynthesis: Light dependent reaction Occurs in thylakoid membrane (chlorophyll) Light E converted to chemical E Requires water Produces oxygen, ATP, NADPH Photosynthesis: Calvin cycle Occurs in stroma Carbon fixation (uses CO2) NADPH, ATP used to make glucose 7