Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life

Transcription

1 CAMPBELL BIOLOGY IN FOCUS URRY CAIN WASSERMAN MINORSKY REECE 3 Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Lecture Presentations by Kathleen Fitzpatrick and Nicole Tunbridge, Simon Fraser University SECOND EDITION

2 Overview: Carbon Compounds and Life Aside from water, living organisms consist mostly of carbon-based compounds Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules A compound containing carbon is said to be an organic compound

3 Macromolecules Critically important molecules of all living things fall into four main classes Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids The first three of these can form huge molecules called macromolecules

4 Figure 3.1 Why is the Structure of a Protein Important for its Function?

5 Concept 3.1: Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms An atom s electron configuration determines the kinds and number of bonds the atom will form with other atoms This is the source of carbon s versatility

6 The Formation of Bonds with Carbon With four valence electrons, carbon can form four covalent bonds with a variety of atoms This ability makes large, complex molecules possible In molecules with multiple carbons, each carbon bonded to four other atoms has a tetrahedral shape However, when two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond, the atoms joined to the carbons are in the same plane as the carbons

7 Figure 3.2 The Shapes of Three Simple Organic Molecules

8 The Formation of Bonds with Carbon, Continued The electron configuration of carbon gives it covalent compatibility with many different elements The valences of carbon and its most frequent partners (hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) are the building code that governs the architecture of living molecules

9 Figure 3.3 Valences of the Major Elements of Organic Molecules

10 The Formation of Bonds with Carbon, Continued-1 Carbon atoms can partner with atoms other than hydrogen; for example: Carbon dioxide: A carbon atom can also form covalent bonds to other carbon atoms, linking the atoms into chains

11 Figure 3.UN01 In-text Figure, Carbon Dioxide Valence Shells, p. 45

12 Figure 3.UN02 In-text Figure, Propane Valence Shells, p. 45

13 Molecular Diversity Arising from Variation in Carbon Skeletons Carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic molecules Carbon chains vary in length and shape

14 Animation: Carbon Skeletons

15 Figure 3.4 Four Ways That Carbon Skeletons Can Vary

16 Figure Four Ways That Carbon Skeletons Can Vary (Part 1: Length and Branching)

17 Figure Four Ways That Carbon Skeletons Can Vary (part 2: Double Bond Position and Presence of Rings)

18 Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen Many organic molecules, such as fats, have hydrocarbon components Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy

19 Isomers Isomers are compounds that have the same number of atoms of the same elements but different structures and properties

20 Structural Isomers Structural isomers differ in the covalent arrangement of their atoms The number of possible isomers increases as carbon skeletons increase in size

21 Cis-Trans Isomers In cis-trans isomers, carbons have covalent bonds to the same atoms, but the atoms differ in their spatial arrangement due to inflexibility of double bonds The subtle differences in shape between such isomers can greatly affect the activities of organic molecules

22 Enantiomers Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of one another and differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon Enantiomers are left-handed and right-handed versions of the same molecule Usually only one isomer is biologically active

23 Figure 3.5 Three Types of Isomers, Compounds With the Same Molecular Formula But Different Structures

24 Figure Three types of Isomers, Compounds With the Same Molecular Formula But Different Structures (Part 1: Structural Isomers)

25 Figure Three Types of Isomers, Compounds With the Same Molecular Formula But Different Structures (Part 2: Cis-Trans Isomers)

26 Figure Three Types of Isomers, Compounds With the Same Molecular Formula But Different Structures (Part 3: Enantiomers)

27 The Chemical Groups Most Important to Life Chemical groups can replace one or more of the hydrogens bonded to the carbon skeleton of a hydrocarbon Functional groups are the chemical groups that affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions Each functional group participates in chemical reactions in a characteristic way

28 Figure 3.UN03 In-Text Figure, Sex Hormones, p.48

29 The Chemical Groups Most Important to Life, Continued The seven functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: Hydroxyl group Carbonyl group Carboxyl group Amino group Sulfhydryl group Phosphate group Methyl group

30 Figure 3.6 Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups

31 Figure Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups (Part 1)

32 Figure 3.6-1a Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups (Part 1a: Hydroxyl)

33 Figure 3.6-1b Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups (Part 1b: Carbonyl)

34 Figure 3.6-1c Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups (Part 1c: Carboxyl)

35 Figure 3.6-1d Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups (Part 1d: Amino)

36 Figure Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups (Part 2)

37 Figure 3.6-2a Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups (Part 2a: Sulfhydryl)

38 Figure 3.6-2b Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups (Part 2b: Phosphate)

39 Figure 3.6-2c Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups (Part 2c: Methyl)

40 ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes An organic phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), has an important function in the cell ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of three phosphate groups ATP stores the potential to react with water, releasing energy that can be used by the cell

41 Figure 3.UN02 In-Text Figure, Propane Valence Shells, p. 45, Continued

42 Concept 3.2: Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks These small building-block molecules are called monomers Some molecules that serve as monomers also have other functions of their own

43 The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers Cells make and break down polymers by the same mechanisms A dehydration reaction occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis, a reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction These processes are facilitated by enzymes, which speed up chemical reactions

44 Animation: Polymers

45 Figure 3.7 The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers

46 Figure The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers (Part 1: Dehydration)

47 Figure The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers (Part 2: Hydrolysis)

48 The Diversity of Polymers Each cell has thousands of different macromolecules Macromolecules vary among cells of an organism, vary more within a species, and vary even more between species An immense variety of polymers can be built from a small set of monomers

49 Concept 3.3: Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, or simple sugars Carbohydrate macromolecules are polysaccharides, polymers composed of many sugar building blocks

50 Sugars Monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of Glucose monosaccharide is the most common Monosaccharides are classified by the number of carbons in the carbon skeleton and the placement of the carbonyl group

51 Figure 3.8 Examples of Monosaccharides

52 Figure Examples of Monosaccharides (Part 1: Triose)

53 Figure Examples of Monosaccharides (Part 2: Pentose)

54 Figure Examples of Monosaccharides (Part 3: Hexoses)

55 Sugars, Continued Though often drawn as linear skeletons, in aqueous solutions many sugars form rings Monosaccharides serve as a major nutrients for cells and as raw material for building molecules

56 Figure 3.9 Linear and Ring Forms of Glucose

57 Disaccharide Synthesis. A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides This covalent bond is called a glycosidic linkage

58 Animation: Disaccharides

59 Figure 3.10-s1 Disaccharide Synthesis (Step 1)

60 Figure 3.10-s2 Disaccharide Synthesis (Step 2)

61 Polysaccharides Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles The structure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by its sugar monomers and the positions of glycosidic linkages

62 Storage Polysaccharides Starch, a storage polysaccharide of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers Plants store surplus starch as granules Most animals have enzymes that can hydrolyze plant start, making glucose available as a nutrient

63 Storage Polysaccharides, Continued Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide in animals Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cells

64 Animation: Polysaccharides

65 Figure 3.11 Polysaccharides of Plants and Animals

66 Figure Polysaccharides of Plants and Animals (Part 1: Starch)

67 Figure a Polysaccharides of Plants and Animals (Part 1a: Plastids Containing Starch Granules, Micrograph)

68 Figure Polysaccharides of Plants and Animals (Part 2: Glycogen)

69 Figure a Polysaccharides of Plants and Animals (Part 2a: Glycogen Granules, Micrograph)

70 Figure Polysaccharides of Plants and Animals (Part 3: Cellulose)

71 Figure a Polysaccharides of Plants and Animals (Part 3a: Plant Cell Wall, Micrograph)

72 Figure b Polysaccharides of Plants and Animals (Part 3b: Cellulose Microfibrils, Micrograph)

73 Structural Polysaccharides The polysaccharide cellulose is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells Like starch and glycogen, cellulose is a polymer of glucose, but the glycosidic linkages in cellulose differ The difference is based on two ring forms for glucose

74 Figure 3.12 Starch and Cellulose Structures

75 Figure Starch and Cellulose Structures (Part 1: Ring Structures)

76 Figure Starch and Cellulose Structures (Part 2: Starch Linkage)

77 Figure Starch and Cellulose Structures (Part 3: Cellulose Linkage)

78 Structural Polysaccharides, Continued In starch, the glucose monomers are arranged in the alpha ( ) conformation Starch (and glycogen) are largely helical In cellulose, the monomers are arranged in the beta ( ) conformation Cellulose molecules are relatively straight

79 Structural Polysaccharides, Continued-1 In cellulose, some hydroxyl groups on its glucose monomers can hydrogen-bond with hydroxyl groups of other cellulose molecules Parallel cellulose molecules held together this way are grouped into microfibrils, which form strong building materials for plants

80 Structural Polysaccharides, Continued-2 Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing linkages can t hydrolyze linkages in cellulose Cellulose in human food passes through the digestive tract as insoluble fiber Some microbes use enzymes to digest cellulose Many herbivores, from cows to termites, have symbiotic relationships with these microbes

81 Structural Polysaccharides, Continued-3 Chitin, another structural polysaccharide, is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods Chitin also provides structural support for the cell walls of many fungi

82 Concept 3.4: Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules Lipids do not form true polymers The unifying feature of lipids is having little or no affinity for water Lipids are hydrophobic because they consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form nonpolar covalent bonds The most biologically important lipids are fats, phospholipids, and steroids

83 Fats Fats are constructed from two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids Glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon A fatty acid consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton

84 Animation: Fats

85 Figure 3.13 The Synthesis and Structure of a Fat, or Triacylglycerol

86 Figure The Synthesis and Structure of a Fat, or Triacylglycerol (Part 1: Dehydration Reaction)

87 Figure The Synthesis and Structure of a Fat, or Triacylglycerol (Part 2: a Triacylglycerol Molecule)

88 Fats, Continued Fats separate from water because water molecules hydrogen-bond to each other and exclude the fats In a fat, three fatty acids are joined to glycerol by an ester linkage, creating a triacylglycerol, or triglyceride

89 Fats, Continued-1 Fatty acids vary in length (number of carbons) and in the number and locations of double bonds Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds

90 Fats, Continued-2 Fats made from saturated fatty acids are called saturated fats and are solid at room temperature Most animal fats are saturated Plant fats and fish fats are usually unsaturated Fats made from unsaturated fatty acids, called unsaturated fats or oils, are liquid at room temperature

91 Figure 3.14 Saturated and Unsaturated Fats and Fatty Acids

92 Figure Saturated and Unsaturated Fats and Fatty Acids (Part 1: Saturated Fat)

93 Figure a Saturated and Unsaturated Fats and Fatty Acids (Part 1a: Butter)

94 Figure Saturated and Unsaturated Fats and Fatty Acids (Part 2: Unsaturated Fat)

95 Figure a Saturated and Unsaturated Fats and Fatty Acids (Part 2a: Olive Oil)

96 Fats, Continued-3 The major function of fats is energy storage Fat is a compact way for animals to carry their energy stores with them

97 Phospholipids In a phospholipid, two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head Phospholipids are major constituents of cell membranes

98 Figure 3.15 The Structure of a Phospholipid

99 Figure The Structure of a Phospholipid (Part 1: Structural Formula and Space-Filling Model)

100 Figure The Structure of a Phospholipid (Part 2: The Phospholipid Bilayer)

101 Phospholipids, Continued When phospholipids are added to water, they selfassemble into a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior This feature of phospholipids results in the bilayer arrangement found in cell membranes The phospholipid bilayer forms a boundary between a cell and its external environment

102 Steroids Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings Cholesterol, an important steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes Although cholesterol is essential in animals, high levels in the blood may contribute to atherosclerosis

103 Video: Cholesterol Space Model

104 Video: Cholesterol Stick Model

105 Figure 3.16 Cholesterol, a Steroid

106 Concept 3.5: Proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions Proteins account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells Protein functions include defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, and structural support

107 Animation: Contractile Proteins

108 Animation: Defensive Proteins

109 Animation: Enzymes

110 Animation: Gene Regulatory Proteins

111 Animation: Hormonal Proteins

112 Animation: Receptor Proteins

113 Animation: Sensory Proteins

114 Animation: Storage Proteins

115 Animation: Structural Proteins

116 Animation: Transport Proteins

117 Figure 3.17 An Overview of Protein Functions

118 Figure An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 1)

119 Figure a An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 1a: Enzymatic)

120 Figure b An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 1b: Defensive)

121 Figure c An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 1c: Storage)

122 Figure ca An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 1ca: Storage, Photo)

123 Figure d An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 1d: Transport)

124 Figure An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 2)

125 Figure a An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 2a: Hormonal)

126 Figure b An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 2b: Receptors)

127 Figure c An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 2c: Contractile and Motor)

128 Figure ca An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 2ca: Contractile and Motor, Micrograph)

129 Figure d An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 2d: Structural)

130 Figure da An Overview of Protein Functions (Part 2da: Structural, Micrograph)

131 Concept 3.5: Proteins include a Diversity of Structures, Resulting in a Wide Range of Functions, Continued Life would not be possible without enzymes Enzymatic proteins act as catalysts, to speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the reaction

132 Concept 3.5: Proteins include a Diversity of Structures, Resulting in a Wide Range of Functions, Continued-1 Polypeptides are unbranched polymers built from the same set of 20 amino acids A protein is a biologically functional molecule that consists of one or more polypeptides

133 Amino Acid Monomers Amino acids are organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups Amino acids differ in their properties due to differing side chains, called R groups

134 Figure 3.18 The 20 Amino Acids of Proteins

135 Figure The 20 Amino Acids of Proteins (Part 1: Nonpolar)

136 Figure The 20 Amino Acids of Proteins (Part 2: Polar)

137 Figure The 20 Amino Acids of Proteins (Part 3: Charged)

138 Polypeptides (Amino Acid Polymers) Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids Polypeptides range in length from a few to more than a thousand monomers Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of amino acids, with a carboxyl end (C-terminus) and an amino end (N-terminus)

139 Figure 3.19 Making a Polypeptide Chain

140 Figure Making a Polypeptide Chain (Part 1: Dehydration Reaction)

141 Figure Making a Polypeptide Chain (Part 2: New Peptide Bond)

142 Protein Structure and Function A functional protein consists of one or more polypeptides precisely twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape

143 Figure 3.20 Structure of a Protein, The Enzyme lysozyme

144 Figure Structure of a Protein, The Enzyme lysozyme (Part 1: Ribbon Model)

145 Figure Structure of a Protein, The Enzyme lysozyme (Part 2: Space-Filling Model)

146 Figure Structure of a Protein, The Enzyme lysozyme (Part 3: Wireframe Model)

147 Protein Structure and Function, Continued The amino acid sequence of each polypeptide leads to a protein s three-dimensional structure A protein s structure determines its function

148 Figure 3.21 An Antibody Binding to a Protein from a Flu Virus

149 Four Levels of Protein Structure Proteins are very diverse, but share three superimposed levels of structure called primary, secondary, and tertiary structure A fourth level, quaternary structure, arises when a protein consists of two or more polypeptide chains

150 Four Levels of Protein Structure, Continued The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids Secondary structure, found in most proteins, consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain Tertiary structure is determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups) Quaternary structure results from interactions between multiple polypeptide chains

151 Figure Exploring Levels of Protein Structure (Part 1: Primary)

152 Figure a Exploring Levels of Protein Structure (Part 1a: Primary, Detail)

153 Figure Exploring Levels of Protein Structure (Part 2: Secondary)

154 Figure a Exploring Levels of Protein Structure (Part 2a: Spider's Web)

155 Figure Exploring Levels of Protein Structure (Part 3: Tertiary)

156 Figure a Exploring Levels of Protein Structure (Part 3a: Side Groups)

157 Figure Exploring Levels of Protein Structure (Part 4: Quaternary)

158 Figure a Exploring Levels of Protein Structure (Part 4a: Collagen)

159 Figure b Exploring Levels of Protein Structure (Part 4b: Hemoglobin)

160 Video: Alpha Helix with No Side Chain

161 Video: Alpha Helix with Side Chain

162 Video: Beta Pleated Sheet

163 Video: Beta Pleated Stick

164 Animation: Introduction to Protein Structure

165 Animation: Primary Structure

166 Animation: Secondary Structure

167 Animation: Tertiary Structure

168 Animation: Quaternary Structure

169 Sickle-Cell Disease: A Change in Primary Structure A slight change in primary structure can affect a protein s structure and ability to function Sickle-cell disease, an inherited blood disorder, results from a single amino acid substitution in the protein hemoglobin

170 Figure 3.23 A Single Amino Acid Substitution in a Protein Causes Sickle-Cell Disease.

171 Figure A Single Amino Acid Substitution in a Protein Causes Sickle-Cell Disease. (Part 1: Normal Hemoglobin)

172 Figure a A Single Amino Acid Substitution in a Protein Causes Sickle-Cell Disease. (Part 1a: Normal Red Blood Cell, Micrograph)

173 Figure A Single Amino Acid Substitution in a Protein Causes Sickle-Cell Disease. (Part 2: Sickle- Cell Hemoglobin)

174 Figure a A Single Amino Acid Substitution in a Protein Causes Sickle-Cell Disease. (Part 2a: Sickled Red Blood Cell, Micrograph)

175 What Determines Protein Structure? In addition to amino acid sequence, physical and chemical conditions can affect protein structure Alterations in ph, salt concentration, temperature, or other environmental factors can cause a protein to unravel This loss of a protein s native structure is called denaturation A denatured protein is biologically inactive

176 Figure 3.24-s1 Denaturation and Renaturation of a Protein (Step 1)

177 Figure 3.24-s2 Denaturation and Renaturation of a Protein (Step 2)

178 Figure 3.24-s3 Denaturation and Renaturation of a Protein (Step 3)

179 Protein Folding in the Cell It is difficult to predict a protein s structure from its primary structure Most proteins probably go through several intermediate structures on their way to their final, stable shape Scientists use X-ray crystallography to determine 3-D protein structure based on diffractions of an X-ray beam by atoms of the crystalized molecule

180 Figure 3.25 Research Method: X-ray Crystallography

181 Figure Research Method: X-ray Crystallography (Part 1: Technique)

182 Figure Research Method: X-ray Crystallography (Part 2: Results)

183 Concept 3.6: Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called a gene Genes are made of DNA, a nucleic acid made of monomers called nucleotides

184 The Roles of Nucleic Acids There are two types of nucleic acids Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Ribonucleic acid (RNA) DNA provides directions for its own replication DNA also directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mrna) and, through mrna, controls protein synthesis

185 Figure 3.26-s1 Gene Expression: DNA RNA Protein (Step 1)

186 Figure 3.26-s2 Gene Expression: DNA RNA Protein (Step 2)

187 Figure 3.26-s3 Gene Expression: DNA RNA Protein (Step 3)

188 The Components of Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are polymers called polynucleotides Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called nucleotides Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and one or more phosphate groups The portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group is called a nucleoside

189 Animation: DNA and RNA Structure

190 The Components of Nucleic Acids, Continued Each nitrogenous base has one or two rings that include nitrogen atoms There are two families of nitrogenous bases Pyrimidines include cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U) Purines include adenine (A) and guanine (G) Thymine is found only in DNA, and uracil only in RNA; the rest are found in both DNA and RNA

191 The Components of Nucleic Acids, Continued-1 The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose; in RNA it is ribose A prime ( ) is used to identify the carbon atoms in the ribose, such as the 2 carbon or 5 carbon A nucleoside with at least one phosphate attached is a nucleotide

192 Figure 3.27 Components of Nucleic Acids

193 Figure Components of Nucleic Acids (Part 1: Nucleic Acid)

194 Figure Components of Nucleic Acids (Part 2: Nucleotide)

195 Figure Components of Nucleic Acids (Part 3: Nucleoside Bases)

196 Figure Components of Nucleic Acids (Part 4: Nucleoside Sugars)

197 Nucleotide Polymers Adjacent nucleotides are joined by covalent bonds between the group on the 3 carbon of one nucleotide and the phosphate on the 5 carbon of the next These links create a backbone of sugar-phosphate units with nitrogenous bases as appendages The sequence of bases along a DNA or mrna polymer is unique for each gene

198 The Structures of DNA and RNA Molecules RNA molecules usually exist as single polypeptide chains DNA molecules have two polynucleotides spiraling around an imaginary axis, forming a double helix In the DNA double helix, the two backbones run in opposite 5 3 directions from each other, an arrangement referred to as antiparallel One DNA molecule includes many genes

199 Figure 3.28 The Structures of DNA and trna Molecules

200 Figure The Structures of DNA and trna Molecules (Part 1: DNA)

201 Figure The Structures of DNA and TRNA Molecules (Part 2: trna)

202 Animation: DNA Double Helix

203 Video: DNA Stick Model

204 Video: DNA Surface Model

205 The Structures of DNA and RNA Molecules, Continued The nitrogenous bases in DNA pair up and form hydrogen bonds: adenine (A) always with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always with cytosine (C) This is called complementary base pairing Complementary pairing can also occur between two RNA molecules or between parts of the same molecule In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil (U), so A and U pair

206 Concept 3.7: Genomics and proteomics have transformed biological inquiry and applications The Human Genome Project was effectively completed in the early 2000s An unplanned benefit of the project was the development of faster, less expensive sequencing methods The first human genome took over 10 years to sequence Currently, a human genome could be completed in just a few days

207 Figure 3.29 Automatic DNA Sequencing Machines and Abundant Computing Power Enable Rapid Sequencing of Genes and Genomes.

208 Concept 3.7: Genomics and Proteomics have Transformed Biological Inquiry and Applications, Continued The number of genomes that have been fully sequenced has generated enormous amounts of data Bioinformatics is the use of computer software and other tools to analyze the data Genomics is the approach used to analyze large sets of genes or compare the genomes of different species Similar analysis of proteins is called proteomics

209 Figure 3.30 Make Connections: Contributions of Genomics and Proteomics to Biology MAKE CONNECTIONS: Contributions of Genomics and Proteomics to Biology Paleontology Evolution Medical Science Conservation Biology Species Interactions

210 Figure Make Connections: Contributions of Genomics and Proteomics to Biology (Part 1: Paleontology) Paleontology

211 Figure Make Connections: Contributions of Genomics and Proteomics to Biology (Part 2: Evolution) Evolution

212 Figure a Make Connections: Contributions of Genomics and Proteomics to Biology (Part 2a: Evolution, Hippopotamus) Evolution

213 Figure b Make Connections: Contributions of Genomics and Proteomics to Biology (Part 2b: Evolution, Pilot Whale) Evolution

214 Figure Make Connections: Contributions of Genomics and Proteomics to Biology (Part 3: Medical Science) Medical Science

215 Figure Make Connections: Contributions of Genomics and Proteomics to Biology (Part 4: Conservation Biology) Conservation Biology

216 Figure Make Connections: Contributions of Genomics and Proteomics to Biology (Part 5: Species Interactions) Species Interactions

217 DNA and Proteins as Tape Measures of Evolution The linear sequences of nucleotides in DNA molecules are passed from parents to offspring Two closely related species are more similar in DNA than are more distantly related species Molecular biology can be used to assess evolutionary kinship

218 Figure 3.UN04 In-Text Figure, ATP Phosphate Groups, p.48

219 Figure 3.UN05 In-Text Figure, ATP Water Reaction, p.48

220 Figure 3.UN06 In-Text Figure, Amino Acid General Formula, p.56

221 Figure 3.UN07-1 Skills Exercise: Analyzing Polypeptide Sequence Data (Part 1) Species Alignment of Amino Acid Sequences of β-globin Human 1 VHLTPEEKSA VTALWGKVNV DEVGGEALGR LLVVYPWTQR FFESFGDLST Monkey 1 VHLTPEEKNA VTTLWGKVNV DEVGGEALGR LLLVYPWTQR FFESFGDLSS Gibbon 1 VHLTPEEKSA VTALWGKVNV DEVGGEALGR LLVVYPWTQR FFESFGDLST Human 51 PDAVMGNPKV KAHGKKVLGA FSDGLAHLDN LKGTFATLSE LHCDKLHVDP Monkey 51 PDAVMGNPKV KAHGKKVLGA FSDGLNHLDN LKGTFAQLSE LHCDKLHVDP Gibbon 51 PDAVMGNPKV KAHGKKVLGA FSDGLAHLDN LKGTFAQLSE LHCDKLHVDP Human 101 ENFRLLGNVL VCVLAHHFGK EFTPPVQAAY QKVVAGVANA LAHKYH Monkey 101 ENFKLLGNVL VCVLAHHFGK EFTPQVQAAY QKVVAGVANA LAHKYH Gibbon 101 ENFRLLGNVL VCVLAHHFGK EFTPQVQAAY QKVVAGVANA LAHKYH Data from Human: rhesus monkey: gibbon:

222 Figure 3.UN07-2 Skills Exercise: Analyzing Polypeptide Sequence Data (Part 2)

223 Figure 3.UN08 Summary of Key Concepts: Carbohydrates Components Examples Functions Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose Disaccharides: lactose, sucrose Polysaccharides: Cellulose (plants) Starch (plants) Glycogen (animals) Chitin (animals and fungi) Fuel; carbon sources that can be converted to other molecules or combined into polymers Strengthens plant cell walls Stores glucose for energy Stores glucose for energy Strengthens exoskeletons and fungal cell walls

224 Figure 3.UN09 Summary of Key Concepts: Lipids Components Examples Functions Triacylglycerols (fats or oils): glycerol + three fatty acids Important energy source Phospholipids: glycerol + phosphate group + two fatty acids Lipid bilayers of membranes Steroids: four fused rings with attached chemical groups Component of cell membranes (cholesterol) Signaling molecules that travel through the body (hormones)

225 Figure 3.UN10 Summary of Key Concepts: Proteins Components Examples Functions Enzymes Structural proteins Storage proteins Transport proteins Hormones Receptor proteins Motor proteins Defensive proteins Catalyze chemical reactions Provide structural support Store amino acids Transport substances Coordinate organismal responses Receive signals from outside cell Function in cell movement Protect against disease

226 Figure 3.UN11 Summary of Key Concepts: Nucleic Acids Components Examples Functions DNA: Sugar = deoxyribose Nitrogenous bases = C, G, A, T Usually double-stranded Stores hereditary information RNA: Sugar = ribose Nitrogenous bases = C, G, A, U Usually single-stranded Various functions in gene expression, including carrying instructions from DNA to ribosomes

227 Figure 3.UN12 Test Your Understanding, Question 1 (Two Sugar Molecules)

228 Figure 3.UN13 Test Your Understanding, Question 2 (Functional Groups)

229 Figure 3.UN14 Test Your Understanding, Question 15 (Developing Chick)