CHAPTER 10 Growth, Motor Development and Physical Literacy

Transcription

1 CHAPTER 10 Growth, Motor Development and Physical Literacy Kinesiology Books Publisher 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Understanding Growth and Development Defining Main Concepts Growth Infancy Childhood Adolescence Gender Differences in Growth and Fitness Motor Development Infancy Early to Mid-childhood Late Childhood through Adolescence Factors Affecting Growth and Motor Development Factors Affecting Growth Factors Affecting Motor Development Kinesiology Books Publisher 2 GROWTH AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Does not simply follow a predetermined genetic blueprint Influenced by personal, social and environmental factors Direction Cephalocaudal: Proximodistal: head foot centre outward Kinesiology Books Publisher 3 1

2 UNDERSTANDING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Defining Main Concepts Kinesiology Books Publisher 4 Why is it that by high school, some young people enjoy physical activity while others dread it? Various factors allow for smooth, motor development and physical literacy Example: choosing appropriate activities at various maturation stages Kinesiology Books Publisher 5 DEFINING MAIN CONCEPTS Growth: a measurable change in body size, quantity, or functioning Maturation: the extent a characteristic resembles a mature biological state Motor development: the study of how motor behaviour change over time because of biological and environmental influences Kinesiology Books Publisher 6 2

3 PHYSICAL LITERACY Integrating a wide range of movement capacities with other important aspects (e.g., healthy behaviours) and applying them to a long-term lifestyle Important for Participating in sports Being fit Overall health and well-being Physically literate individuals move with competence and confidence in a wide variety of activities and environments Kinesiology Books Publisher 7 CRITICAL PERIODS AND READINESS Times of particular sensitivity to environmental stimuli during which an exposure can result in child s optimal development of a skill For acquisition of many physical and cognitive skills, it is very early in a child s life Difficulty is determining how early to introduce to physical activity Readiness is when an individual is prepared to acquire a particular behaviour or skill and has internal motivation to learn Kinesiology Books Publisher 8 3

4 GROWTH Infancy Childhood Adolescence Gender Differences in Growth and Fitness Kinesiology Books Publisher 10 Although the general sequence of growth tends to be the same, there is considerable variation We all pass from infancy through childhood and adolescence to adulthood, but not everyone grows as fast, as much, or in the same way as others. Kinesiology Books Publisher 11 INFANCY (<1Y) Males are usually slightly heavier and longer than females at birth Extremely rapid growth 3x birth weight birth height by 50% Kinesiology Books Publisher 12 4

5 CHILDHOOD (1-13Y) Early Childhood: ages1-6 Loss of baby fat Rapid growth Good flexibility Abundant muscle development Mid Childhood: ages 7-10 Slower and more constant growth Improvements in coordination and motor functioning Late childhood: ages Growth spurt preceded by fat accumulation Puberty: ages Height spurt Reproductive maturation Redistribution of body weight Kinesiology Books Publisher 13 Compared to boys, girls: Early Childhood: ages1-6 Lose less fat Mid Childhood: ages 7-10 Similar slow, constant growth Late childhood: ages Have earlier growth spur (10-11 vs ) Puberty: ages Increase body fat (boys increase lean body mass and decrease body fat) Mature earlier (12-13 vs ) and reach athletic potential in some sports sooner Kinesiology Books Publisher 14 5

6 ADOLESCENCE (14-20Y) Somatotypes develop: Ectomorph: linear shape, delicate bone structure, little fat, and long limbs Mesomorph: well-muscled, little fat, broad shoulders, narrow waist Endomorph: rounded appearance, heavy bone structure, little bone and muscle definition Kinesiology Books Publisher 16 x x x x x 17 Kinesiology Books Publisher 17 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN GROWTH & FITNESS It is common to hear about gender differences in: Stature Weight Cardiorespiratory fitness Body composition Flexibility Muscular strength How much it s due to genetic is debatable Kinesiology Books Publisher 18 6

7 STATURE Standing height Similar at birth Boys reach maximal height later (18) than girls (16) By adulthood, males are on average taller Kinesiology Books Publisher Kinesiology Books Publisher 20 WEIGHT Similar at birth Large gains occur during infancy and adolescence Males are on average heavier by adulthood Much of the weight gain is caused by increases in height and changes in body composition Diet and exercise have an obvious impact 21 Kinesiology Books Publisher 21 7

8 22 Kinesiology Books Publisher 22 Kinesiology Books Publisher 23 CARDIORESPIRATORY FITNESS HEART RATE Faster in children vs. adults 100 vs. 75 bpm ~10% lower in boys STROKE VOLUME Lower in children due to small hearts Lower in women vs. men Resting: Athlete ml Untrained ml CARDIAC OUTPUT Lower in children, untrained and women Exercise: Athlete ml/min Untrained ml/min 24 Kinesiology Books Publisher 24 8

9 BODY COMPOSITION Male fat content Female fat content At birth 13% At birth 15% Recommended 10-22% Recommended 20-32% More around trunk and less around extremities More evenly distributed Kinesiology Books Publisher 25 Comparison of body composition between sexes and at various ages 26 Kinesiology Books Publisher 26 FLEXIBILITY Defined as the range of motion about joint(s) Affected by joint s anatomical structure, exercise and stretching, age, and gender During overstretching muscle spindles invoke stretch reflex and muscles shortening to protect against injury During slow and gentle movements, stretch reflex will not be invoked and muscles relax to stretch Stretching should feel tight not of painful and be held for 5-20s Kinesiology Books Publisher 27 9

10 Comparison of flexibility between sexes and at various ages 28 Kinesiology Books Publisher 28 Kinesiology Books Publisher 29 MUSCULAR STRENGTH Maximum force a muscle can exert in a single contraction Older children and adults with restricted movement due to inadequate strength usually lead to a sedentary lifestyle Strength peaks between ages and slowly declines with age Grip strength Most common measurement Force exerted when grip dynamometer is squeezed as hard as possible with the hand Kinesiology Books Publisher 30 10

11 Rate and pattern of strength development using grip strength measurement 31 Kinesiology Books Publisher 31 MUSCULAR STRENGTH Peak begins in 20s MALES Peaks after height spur Sex hormones = muscularity Peak begins in late teens Peaks with height spur 60-84% less dynamic strength FEMALES 32 Kinesiology Books Publisher 32 MUSCULAR STRENGTH Weights resistance training: Prepubescent children Can make strength gains under strict supervision Otherwise unsuitable and dangerous due to risk for injury Adolescents Gain with properly designed progressive strengthening program Adults Leads to more active, healthier lives Helps to accomplish daily tasks Kinesiology Books Publisher 33 11

12 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Infancy Early to Mid-childhood Late Childhood through Adolescence Kinesiology Books Publisher 34 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT How movement performance changes over time Continuous process of sequential changes Movements become more organized and specialized By nature (e.g., growth, age, heredity) and nurture (e.g., activity, family, culture) Kinesiology Books Publisher 35 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT INFANTS (0-1Y) Reflexive movements (sucking) Spontaneous movements (kicking) Rudimentary movements (rolling) EARLY TO MID-CHILDHOOD Elementary fundamental movements (walking) LATE CHILDHOOD & ADOLESCENCE Advanced fundamental movements Specialized movements are formed by combining skills that are sport-specific Kinesiology Books Publisher 36 12

13 37 INFANCY (0-1Y) Motor development related to brain maturation Midbrain Reflex centre Most developed at birth Reflexive movements for feeding and protection Sucking, palm grasp Cerebrum Controls voluntary movement, memory and sensation Rudimentary movements that are voluntarily controlled Rolling, sitting reaching Cerebellum The little brain that controls balance and coordination Standing, crawling, grasping and releasing Kinesiology Books Publisher 38 EARLY TO MID-CHILDHOOD (1-10Y) Development of Perceptual Motor Abilities Physical Proficiency Abilities Fundamental Skills Kinesiology Books Publisher 39 13

14 PERCEPTUAL MOTOR ABILITIES Motor response Gathering environmental cues Interpreting and planning response Integrating with stored information Kinesiology Books Publisher 40 PERCEPTUAL MOTOR ABILITIES Ability VISION-RELATED (80%) Clarity of vision: distinguishing details Spatial awareness: recognizing an object s orientation in space Coincident timing: intercepting a moving object Figure-ground perception: distinguishing an object from background NONVISION-RELATED (20%) Tactile perception: information from the skin related to touch, temperature, pressure, and pain Kinesthetic perception: awareness of movement and body position without use of sight or sound Matures by age Kinesiology Books Publisher 41 PHYSICAL PROFICIENCY ABILITIES A set of underlying traits utilized during motor performance Important for helping learn motor skills and become physically literate Include balance coordination agility speed strength (static, dynamic, and explosive) flexibility stamina gross body equilibrium Kinesiology Books Publisher 42 14

15 Kinesiology Books Publisher 43 FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS 1. Stability: Balancing, spinning, rolling, bending, twisting 2. Locomotor: Running, galloping, hopping, chasing, leaping 3. Manipulative: Dribbling, throwing, kicking Serve as critical foundation to the development of more specialized skills Proficiency barrier between fundamental and specialized skills if underdeveloped Accompanied by feelings of self-consciousness and embarrassment Gender differences due to environmental influences Kinesiology Books Publisher 44 LATE CHILDHOOD (10-13Y) & ADOLESCENCE (TEENS-20S) Refine existing skills and abilities Create and apply skills in a variety of elaborate combinations Develop new sport-specific skills Also integrate strategies, movements, and concepts across diverse settings Kinesiology Books Publisher 45 15

16 10y practice in a sport Organized and integrated knowledge base of the sport More adaptable Expert motor performer More effective decisions Mechanically efficient Better detects and corrects errors Strategic focus FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Factors Affecting Growth Factors Affecting Motor Development Kinesiology Books Publisher 47 FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH Everyone grows in the same sequence, but at different speeds and final size Factors Heredity Nutrition Socioeconomic status Exercise Kinesiology Books Publisher 48 16

17 HEREDITY Whether we are short, tall, large, or small is largely determined by the genes we possess at birth Environment can have a great impact on the degree to which our genetic potential is expressed Kinesiology Books Publisher 49 NUTRITION You are what you eat Carbohydrates and fats give energy and proteins build body tissues Vitamins, minerals, and water allow various reactions and functions to take place Malnutrition May delay growth If not prolonged, can grow to genetically predetermined size Overeating Number of fat cells in the body is established during puberty Child who overeats will have trouble keeping weight down as an adult Kinesiology Books Publisher 50 SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS Children from higher socioeconomic classes tend to have larger average body sizes at all ages Reasons Nutrition Levels of stress Sleeping patterns Regular exercise Kinesiology Books Publisher 51 17

18 EXERCISE Moderate exercise tends to increase bone diameter and density Stronger and more durable bones Greater length of the non-weight-bearing bones Active children and teenagers also show an increased lean body mass and muscle size (hypertrophy) and a decreased body fat Negative influences when overdone at a young age Kinesiology Books Publisher 52 Kinesiology Books Publisher 53 Kinesiology Books Publisher 54 18

19 FACTORS AFFECTING MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Motor development does not occur in a vacuum Internal (psychological) and external (sociocultural) forces are continuously moulding it Psychological factors tend to be overlooked and underemphasized Kinesiology Books Publisher 55 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS: COGNITION Involves thinking and learning Dependent on knowledge stored in memory Motor experts cognitively process information more quickly, accurately, and strategically Movement plays an important role in cognitive and motor development, particularly during the period of rapid brain development (0-5y) Kinesiology Books Publisher 56 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS: COGNITION Ages 8-10 and older: Understand that there are various roles besides their own so they can cooperate and learn about teamwork and situation-specific strategies Ages 18 and older: consistent improvement in mental abilities levels off. Ages and older: Form accurate attributions; understand the potential causes of game outcomes (e.g., effort, luck, difficulty, ability, strength of opponents, weather), which can hinder their motivation and confidence Kinesiology Books Publisher 57 19

20 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS: ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT Physical education affords all children the opportunity to make important strides in their development Students academic performance can be enhanced through physical activity, exercise, and team sports Perceptual motor development activities can be used to enhance academic or intellectual performance Physical activity also helps students let off some steam so they can focus better and be more alert Kinesiology Books Publisher 58 Kinesiology Books Publisher 59 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS: MOTIVATION Involves the will or motive to move Influenced by internal beliefs: 1. Perceived competence: confidence ability to succeed on a challenge 2. Control beliefs: feeling of being in control of a challenge 3. Outcome expectations: enjoy the results of succeeding on a challenge 4. Task value: amount of importance for succeeding in a challenge Kinesiology Books Publisher 60 20

21 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS: ENJOYMENT The goal of physical activity among growing children should be play and enjoyment Children who feel pressured by parents and coaches to perform are often pushed to the limit and lose interest in pursuing an active lifestyle Instead of developing skills for lifelong enjoyment and health, they may dislike a sport or physical activity because of the stress it causes. Kinesiology Books Publisher 61 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS: SELF-ESTEEM AND CONCEPT Self-esteem: value we place on ourselves as persona Self-concept: perception we have of ourselves Involvement in physical activities improves self-esteem and concept in children Different from athletic competence, which is related to a perceived level of success in competitive sporting activities How competent you feel at a sport can have a different effect on selfesteem than involvement in an enjoyable physical activity Kinesiology Books Publisher 62 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS: SELF-CONFIDENCE CYCLE Engaging in physical exercise initiates a self-confidence cycle to help control your weight protect yourself against various diseases boost your energy level manage stress and anxiety improve your self-esteem develop self-discipline and mental toughness You will gradually experience increased fitness positive shifts in your nutrition habits increased vigour strong sense of self-empowerment Kinesiology Books Publisher 63 21

22 SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS Environment in which children grow and develop has a large impact on their future success in athletics Early involvement in physical activities that lead to positive experiences makes it easier, and often less threatening, for young people to learn and improve their physical skills Important to experience playful and low-stress motor movement opportunities in various settings and with diverse equipment Kinesiology Books Publisher 65 Kinesiology Books Publisher 66 22

23 SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS: FAMILY Influences the choice to participate in physical activities and the success attained by a child in sports Family views concerning physical activity are often instilled in a child at an early age To increase level of participation among children: Strong parental interest in physical activity Provision of access to equipment and facilities Being encouraging and helpful Kinesiology Books Publisher 67 Kinesiology Books Publisher 68 SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS: PEERS Family s influence begins to diminish and the need for peer approval becomes greater at adolescence Decisions concerning participation in sport are influenced by peers Peer group often guides individuals into, or away from, participation in physical activities Kinesiology Books Publisher 69 23

24 SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS: SPORTS PARTICIPATION Children participate in sports for various reasons: #1: Having fun Improving skills Being with friends Being part of a team Receiving awards (not too important) Winning (not too important) Emphasis should be placed on involvement and participation, skill development, and enjoyment of the skill Reason often given for withdrawing from sports is excessive stress In reality, drop out because of interpersonal problems (such as disliking the coach) or to pursue other leisure activity interests Kinesiology Books Publisher 70 Kinesiology Books Publisher 71 Kinesiology Books Publisher 72 24

25 SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS: INSTRUCTORS Competent coaches can reduce child s likelihood to drop out of sports Many youth sport coaches are volunteers and should become certified Should structure a positive learning environment that proactively fosters development of life skills such as moral character Overemphasis on winning can undermine ethical behaviour A child likely be more motivated by specific feedback and encouragement than overemphasis on grades or placement Kinesiology Books Publisher 73 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Readiness to engage in physical activities is related to various stages of growth and motor development Capable motor, perceptual motor, and fundamental movement abilities provide a foundation for physical literacy Various motor development phases (reflexes, rudimentary movements, fundamental movements, and specialized skills) are molded by internal factors (growth, cognition, motivation, emotions) and external forces (family, peers, instructors) Movement has been linked to improvements in cognitive functioning, achievement and academic work Kinesiology Books Publisher 75 25