TREASURE COAST SCIENCE SYLLABUS

Transcription

1 TREASURE COAST SCIENCE SYLLABUS Anatomy and Physiology Honors Year and teacher contact information COMPLETED BY INDIVIDUAL TEACHER Text info here The purpose of this course is to provide exploratory experiences, laboratory investigations and real-life applications in the biological sciences of anatomy and physiology. Work will be designed to reflect the advanced expectations of an honors level course. All honors students will be required to complete a science fair project or comparable project or competition beyond the classroom. Class time will be allotted for some aspects of the project the remainder will be completed at home. All topics must be pre-approved by the teacher in writing and all paperwork must be submitted prior to starting the project. Specific expectations and due dates will be given to each student. Course Goals: To utilize research-based learning strategies To develop a conceptual framework for anatomy and physiology To develop an appreciation for science as a process, not a set of facts Course Requirements: COMPLETED BY INDIVIDUAL TEACHER Assignments: COMPLETED BY INDIVIDUAL TEACHER Tests and Quizzes: COMPLETED BY INDIVIDUAL TEACHER Research Projects: COMPLETED BY INDIVIDUAL TEACHER Grading Plan: COMPLETED BY INDIVIDUAL TEACHER Academic Honesty Plan: Willful or deliberate unauthorized use of the work of another person for academic purposes, or inappropriate use of notes, or other material in the completion of an academic assignment or test is not permitted. In addition to disciplinary responses, the granting of credit for this assignment may be considered null and void. Classroom Expectations: COMPLETED BY INDIVIDUAL TEACHER Personal Statement: COMPLETED BY INDIVIDUAL TEACHER 1

2 Semester 1 Quarter 1 Topic of Study: The Science of Anatomy and Physiology Explain the difference between an experiment and other types of scientific investigations. Use appropriate reference materials to support scientific investigations of various types, such as systematic observation or experiments. Recognize, identify and know how to safely and accurately use lab equipment. Identify the safety equipment in the science lab/classroom (safety shower, fire extinguisher, fire blanket, hood, eye wash, first aid kit, gloves, sharps container, MSDS sheets). Identify and find the following information such as chemical name, hazardous components, health hazards, first aid and emergency procedures using MSDS sheets. Identify protective clothing worn in the lab: safety goggles, aprons, gloves. Recognize that different types of wastes are disposed of in specific ways. Recognize the importance of the lab safety contract and explain why parent and student signatures are required. Develop a hypothesis with one independent variable (tested variable). Distinguish between dependent variables (outcome variable), independent variables (tested variable), controls, and variables that are held constant in a variety of activities. Develop hypotheses and determine what data should be collected to test the hypothesis. Determine tools and methods that should be used to collect valid data. Determine how data will be collected to analyze the data. Determine appropriate and consistent standards of measurement for the data to be collected in a survey or experiment. Collect, organize, and analyze data sets, determine the best format for the data and present visual summaries from the following: bar graphs, line graphs, scatter plots, cumulative frequency graphs. Explain why models are used in science to observe processes that happen too slowly, too quickly, or are too small or vast for direct observation. Give examples of visual/physical and conceptual models as used in anatomy and physiology. Explain and evaluate the impact of biotechnology on the individual, society and the environment, including medical and ethical issues. Explain and evaluate environmental and heredity on personal health. Topic of Study: Understanding Anatomy and Physiology Define what anatomy and physiology is and how they are related. 2

3 Define and describe the levels of structural organization. List the functional characteristics necessary to maintain life. List the survival needs of the body. Define homeostasis and explain why it is significant. Define and describe negative feedback and its role in maintaining homeostasis and normal body function. Describe the anatomical position verbally or demonstrate it. Use proper anatomical terminology to describe body directions. Locate the major body cavities and list the chief organs in each cavity. Differentiate between matter and energy. List the major energy forms and provide an example of how each energy form is used in the body. Define chemical element and list the four elements that form the bulk of the body. Explain how elements and atoms are related. Differentiate between ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds. Contrast synthesis, decomposition, and exchange reactions. Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds. Differentiate clearly between a salt, an acid, and a base. List and describe several salts that are vitally important to body functioning. Explain the importance of water to body homeostasis and provide several examples of the roles of water. Explain the concept of ph and state the ph of blood. Compare and contrast carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids in terms of their building blocks, structures, and functions in the body. Explain the role of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis in the formation and breakdown of organic molecules. Describe the four levels of protein structure. Describe enzyme action. Compare and contrast DNA and RNA. Explain the role of ATP in cell metabolism. Explain the four concepts of cell theory. List and describe the three major regions of a generalized cell and indicate the function of each. Compare and contrast plant and animal cells. Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane and relate it to membrane functions. Relate plasma structure to active and passive transport. Define membrane potential and explain how the resting membrane potential is established and maintained. Describe the role of the glycocalyx when cells interact with their environment. List several roles of membrane receptors and that of voltage-sensitive membrane channel proteins. 3

4 Describe and explain the functions of the cytoplasmic organelles. Outline the structure and function of the nuclear envelope, nucleolus, and chromatin. List the phases of the cell life cycle and describe the events at each phase. Describe the process of DNA replication. Explain the two phases of protein synthesis and describe the roles of DNA, mrna, trna, and rrna in each phase. Name and describe the composition of extracellular materials. Discuss some theories of cell differentiation and aging. List the steps involved in preparing animal tissue for microscopic viewing. List several structural and functional characteristics of epithelial tissue. Name, classify, and describe the various types of epithelia, and indicate their chief function(s) and location(s). Identify common characteristics of connective tissues, and list and describe its structural elements. Describe the types of connective tissue found in the body, and indicate their characteristics. Identify the general characteristics of nervous tissue. Compare and contrast the structure and body locations of the three types of muscle tissue. Describe the structure and function of cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes. Explain the process of tissue repair involved in normal healing of a superficial wound. Describe the embryonic origin of each tissue class. Describe the tissue changes that occur with aging. Describe the changes to tissue when affected by cancer. Topic of Study: Integumentary System and Body Membranes List the general functions of each membrane type and give its location in the body. Compare the structure (tissue makeup) of the major membrane types. Name the tissue types composing the epidermis and dermis. List the major layers of each (epidermis and dermis) and describe the functions of each layer. Describe the factors that normally contribute to skin color. Describe how changes in skin color may be used as clinical signs of certain disease states. Compare the structure and locations of the sweat and oil glands. Compare the composition and functions of the sweat and oil glands secretions. List the parts of a hair follicle and explain the function of each part. Name the region of a hair and explain the basis for hair color. Describe the structure of nails. Describe how the skin accomplishes at least five functions. Explain why serious burns are life threatening. 4

5 Summarizes the characteristics of the three major types of skin cancer. Describe the causes of changes that occur in the skin from birth to old age. Semester 1 Quarter 2 Topic of Study: Skeletal System Describe the functional properties of the three types of cartilage tissues. Explain how cartilage grows. Name the major regions of the skeleton and describe their relative functions. Compare and contrast the structure of the four bone classes and provide examples of each. List and describe the five functions of bones. Describe the functional importance to bone markings. Describe the gross anatomy of a typical long bone and flat bone. Describe the histology of compact and spongy bone. Discuss the chemical composition of bone. Compare and contrast intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification. Compare the location and remodeling functions of the osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. Describe the steps of fracture repair. Contrast the disorders of bone remodeling seen in osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and Paget s disease. Describe the timing and cause of changes in bone architecture and bone mass throughout life. Name the three major parts of the axial and appendicular skeletons and describe their relative positions. Name, identify, and describe the skull bones. Describe the structure of the vertebral column, lists the components, and describe its curvature. Name and describe the bones of the thoracic cage. Identify bones forming the pectoral girdle and relate their structure and arrangement to the function of this girdle. Identify important bone markings on the pectoral girdle. Identify or name the bones of the upper limbs and their important markings. Name the bones contributing to the os coxae and relate the pelvic girdle s strength to its function. Describe the difference in the male and female pelves and relate these to functional differences. Identify the lower limb bones and their important markings. Define fontanelles and indicate their significance. 5

6 Name the three major categories of joints and compare the amount of movement allowed by each. Describe how skeletal proportions change throughout life. Discuss how age-related skeletal changes may affect health. Topic of Study: Muscular System Compare and contrast the basic types of muscle tissue. List four important functions of muscle tissue. Describe the gross structure of a skeletal muscle. Describe the microscopic structure and functional roles of the myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and T tubule(s) of skeletal muscle fibers. Describe the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. Explain how muscle fibers are stimulated to contract by describing events that occur at the neuromuscular junction. Describe how action potential is generated. Explain how smooth, graded contractions of a skeletal muscle are produced. Differentiate between isometric and isotonic contractions. Describe the ways in which ATP is generated during skeletal muscle contraction. Define oxygen deficit and muscle fatigue. Describe the factors that influence the force, velocity, and duration of skeletal muscle contraction. Describe three types of skeletal muscle fiber and explain the relative value of each. Compare and contrast the effects of aerobic and resistance exercise on the skeletal muscles and on other body systems. Compare the gross and microscopic anatomy of smooth muscle fibers to that of skeletal muscle fibers. Compare and contrast the contractile mechanisms and the means of activation of skeletal and smooth muscles in the body. Distinguish between single-unit and multi-unit smooth muscle structurally and functionally. Describe the embryonic development of muscle tissues and the changes that occur in skeletal muscles with age. Describe the function of prime movers, antagonists, synergists, and fixators. List the criteria used in naming muscles and provide an example to illustrate the use of each criterion. Name the common patterns of muscle fascicle arrangement and relate these to power generation. Define lever and explain how a lever operating at a mechanical advantage differs from one operating at a mechanical disadvantage. 6

7 Name the three types of level systems and indicate the arrangement of effort, fulcrum, and load in each. Name and identify the major muscles of the human body and state the origin, insertion, and action of each. Describe muscular dystrophy impact on individual health. Topic of Study: Nervous System and Sensory Organs List the basic functions of the nervous system. Explain the structural and functional divisions of the nervous system. List the types of neuroglia and cite their functions. Define neuron, describe its important structural components, and relate each to a functional role. Differentiate between a nerve and a tract, and between a nucleus and a ganglion. Explain the importance of the myelin sheath and describe how it is formed in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Classify neurons structurally and functionally. Define resting membrane potential and describe its electrochemical basis. Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials. Explain how action potentials are generated and propagated along neurons. Define absolute and relative refractory periods. Define saltatory conduction and contrast it to conduction along unmyelinated fibers. Define synapse. Distinguish between electrical and chemical synapses by structure and by the way they transmit information. Distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. Describe how synaptic events are integrated and modified. Define neurotransmitter and name several classes of neurotransmitters. Describe common patterns of neuronal organization and processing. Distinguish between serial and parallel processing. Describe how neurons develop and form synapses. Describe the process of brain development. Name the major regions of the adult brain. Name and locate the ventricles of the brain. List the major lobes, fissures, and functional areas of the cerebral cortex. Explain lateralization of hemisphere function. Differentiate between commissures, association fibers, and projection fibers. Describe the general function of the basal nuclei (basal ganglia). Describe the location of the diencephalon, and name its subdivisions and functions. Identify the three major regions of the brain stem, and note the functions of each area. Describe the structure and function of the cerebellum. 7

8 Locate the limbic system and the reticular formation, and explain the role of each functional system. Define EEG and distinguish between alpha, beta, theta, and delta brain waves. Describe consciousness clinically. Compare and contrast the events and importance of slow-wave and REM sleep, and indicate how their patterns change through life. Compare and contrast the stages and categories of memory. Describe the relative roles of the major brain structures believed to be involved in declarative and procedural memories. Describe how meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood-brain barrier protect the CNS. Describe the formation of cerebrospinal fluid, and follow its circulatory pathway. Indicate the cause (if known) and major signs and symptoms of cerebrovascular accidents, Alzheimer s disease, Parkinson s disease, and Huntington s disease. Describe the embryonic development of the spinal cord. Describe the gross and microscopic structure of the spinal cord. List the major spinal cord tracts, and classify each as a motor or sensory tract. Distinguish between flaccid and spastic paralysis, and between paralysis and paresthesia. List and explain several techniques used to diagnose brain disorders. Indicate several maternal factors that can impair development of the nervous system in an embryo. Explain the effects of aging on the brain. Define peripheral nervous system and list its components. Classify general sensory receptors by structure, stimulus detected, and body location. Outline the events that lead to sensation and perception. Describe receptor and generator potentials and sensory adaptation. Describe the main aspects of sensory perception. Define ganglion and indicate the general body location of ganglia. Describe the general structure of a nerve. Follow the process of nerve regeneration. Name the 12 pairs of cranial nerves; indicate the body region and structures innervated by each. Describe the formation of a spinal nerve and the general distribution of its rami. Define plexus. Name the major plexuses and describe the distribution and function of the peripheral nerves arising from each plexus. Compare and contrast the motor endings of somatic and autonomic nerve fibers. Outline the three levels of the motor hierarchy. Compare the roles of the cerebellum and basal nuclei in controlling motor activity. Name the components of a reflex arc and distinguish between autonomic and somatic reflexes. Compare and contrast stretch, flexor, crossed-extensor, and Golgi tendon reflexes. 8

9 Describe the developmental relationship between the segmented arrangement of peripheral nerves, skeletal muscles, and skin dermatomes. List the changes that occur in the peripheral nervous system with aging. Define autonomic nervous system and explain its relationship to the peripheral nervous system. Compare the somatic and autonomic nervous systems relative to effectors, efferent pathways, and neurotransmitters released. Compare and contrast the functions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions. For the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions, describe the site of CNS origin, locations of ganglia, and general fiber pathways. Define cholinergic and adrenergic fibers, and list the different types of their receptors. Describe the clinical importance of drugs that mimic or inhibit adrenergic or cholinergic effects. State the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the following organs: heart, blood vessels, gastrointestinal tract, lungs, adrenal medulla, and external genitalia. Describe autonomic nervous system controls. Explain the relationship of some types of hypertension, Raynaud s disease, and autonomic dysreflexia to disorders of autonomic functioning. Describe some effects of aging on the autonomic nervous system. Describe the structure and function of accessory eye structures, eye layers, the lens, and humors of the eye. Outline the causes and consequences of cataracts and glaucoma. Trace the pathway of light through the eye to the retina, and explain how light is focused for distant and close vision. Outline the causes and consequences of astigmatism, myopia, hyperopia, and presbyopia. Describe the events involved in the stimulation of photoreceptors by light, and compare and contrast the roles of rods and cones in vision. Compare and contrast light and dark adaptation. Trace the visual pathway to the visual cortex, and briefly describe the steps in visual processing. Describe the location, structure, and afferent pathways of taste and smell receptors, and explain how these receptors are activated. Describe the structure and general function of the outer, middle, and internal ears. Describe the sound conduction pathway to the fluids of the internal ear, and follow the auditory pathway from the spiral organ (of Corti) to the temporal cortex. Explain how one is able to differentiate pitch and loudness, and localize the source of sounds. List possible causes and symptoms of otitis media, deafness, and Ménière s syndrome. Explain how the balance organs of the semicircular canals and the vestibule help maintain dynamic and static equilibrium. List changes that occur in the special sense organs with aging. 9

10 Semester 2 Quarter 3 Topic of Study: Endocrine System Indicate important differences between hormonal and neural controls of body functioning. List the major endocrine organs, and describe their body locations. Distinguish between hormones, paracrines, and autocrines. Describe how hormones are classified chemically. Describe the two major mechanisms by which hormones bring about their effects on their target tissues. List three kinds of interaction of different hormones acting on the same target cell. Explain how hormone release is regulated. Describe structural and functional relationships between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. List and describe the chief effects of anterior pituitary hormones. Discuss the structure of the posterior pituitary, and describe the effects of the two hormones it releases. Describe important effects of the two groups of hormones produced by the thyroid gland. Follow the process of thyroxine formation and release. Indicate general functions of parathyroid hormone. List hormones produced by the adrenal gland, and cite their physiological effects. Briefly describe the importance of melatonin. Compare and contrast the effects of the two major pancreatic hormones. Describe the functional roles of hormones of the testes, ovaries, and placenta. Name a hormone produced by the heart. State the location of enteroendocrine cells. Briefly explain the hormonal functions of the kidney, skin, adipose tissue, bones, and thymus. Describe the effect of aging on endocrine system functioning. Topic of Study: Blood and Cardiovascular System Describe the composition and physical characteristics of whole blood. Explain why it is classified as a connective tissue. List eight functions of blood. Discuss the composition and functions of plasma. 10

11 Describe the structure, function, and production of erythrocytes. Describe the chemical makeup of hemoglobin. Give examples of disorders caused by abnormalities of erythrocytes. Explain what goes wrong in each disorder. List the classes, structural characteristics, and functions of leukocytes. Describe how leukocytes are produced. Give examples of leukocyte disorders, and explain what goes wrong in each disorder. Describe the structure and function of platelets. Describe the processes of hemostasis. List factors that limit clot formation and prevent undesirable clotting. Give examples of hemostatic disorders. Indicate the cause of each condition. Describe the ABO and Rh blood groups. Explain the basis of transfusion reactions. Describe fluids used to replace blood volume and the circumstances for their use. Explain the diagnostic importance of blood testing. Describe changes in the sites of blood production and in the type of hemoglobin produced after birth. Name some blood disorders that become more common with age. Describe the size, shape, location, and orientation of the heart in the thorax. Name the coverings of the heart. Describe the structure and function of each of the three layers of the heart wall. Describe the structure and functions of the four heart chambers. Name each chamber of the heart and provide the name and general route of its associated great vessel(s). Trace the pathway of blood through the heart. Name the major branches and describe the distribution of the coronary arteries. Name the heart valves and describe their location, function, and mechanism of operation. Describe the structural and functional properties of cardiac muscle, and explain how it differs from skeletal muscle. Briefly describe the events of cardiac muscle cell contraction. Name the components of the conduction system of the heart, and trace the conduction pathway. Draw a diagram of a normal electrocardiogram tracing. Name the individual waves and intervals, and indicate what each represents. Name some of the abnormalities that can be detected on an ECG tracing. Describe normal heart sounds, and explain how heart murmurs differ. Describe the timing and events of the cardiac cycle. Name and explain the effects of various factors regulating stroke volume and heart rate. Explain the role of the autonomic nervous system in regulating cardiac output. Describe fetal heart formation, and indicate how the fetal heart differs from the adult heart. Provide examples of age-related changes in heart function. 11

12 Describe the three layers that typically form the wall of a blood vessel, and state the function of each. Define vasoconstriction and vasodilation. Compare and contrast the structure and function of the three types of arteries. Describe the structure and function of a capillary bed. Describe the structure and function of veins, and explain how veins differ from arteries. Define blood flow, blood pressure, and resistance, and explain the relationships between these factors. List and explain the factors that influence blood pressure, and describe how blood pressure is regulated. Define hypertension and describe its manifestations and consequences. Explain how blood flow is regulated in the body in general and in its specific organs. Outline factors involved in capillary dynamics, and explain the significance of each. Define circulatory shock. List several possible causes. Trace the pathway of blood through the pulmonary circuit, and state the importance of this special circulation. Describe the general functions of the systemic circuit. Name and give the location of the major arteries and veins in the systemic circulation. Describe the structure and special function of the hepatic portal system. Explain how blood vessels develop in the fetus. Provide examples of changes that often occur in blood vessels as a person ages. Topic of Study: Lymphatic System List the functions of the lymphatic vessels. Describe the structure and distribution of lymphatic vessels. Describe the source of lymph and mechanism(s) of lymph transport. Describe the basic structure and cellular population of lymphoid tissue. Differentiate between diffuse and follicular lymphoid tissues. Describe the general location, histological structure, and functions of lymph nodes. Name and describe the other lymphoid organs of the body. Compare and contrast other lymphoid organs with lymph nodes, structurally and functionally. Outline the development of the lymphatic system and the lymphoid organs and tissues. Describe surface membrane barriers and their protective functions. Explain the importance of phagocytosis and natural killer cells in innate body defense. Describe the inflammatory process. Identify several inflammatory chemicals and indicate their specific roles. Name the body s antimicrobial substances and describe their function. 12

13 Explain how fever helps protect the body. Define antigen and describe how antigens affect the adaptive defenses. Define complete antigen, hapten, and antigenic determinant. Compare and contrast the origin, maturation process, and general function of B and T lymphocytes. Define immunocompetence and self-tolerance, and describe their development in B and T lymphocytes. Name several antigen-presenting cells and describe their roles in adaptive defenses. Define humoral immunity. Describe the process of clonal selection of a B cell. Recount the roles of plasma cells and memory cells in humoral immunity. Compare and contrast active and passive humoral immunity. Describe the structure of an antibody monomer, and name the five classes of antibodies. Explain the function(s) of antibodies and describe clinical uses of monoclonal antibodies. Follow antigen processing in the body. Define cell-mediated immunity and describe the process of activation and clonal selection of T cells. Describe T cell functions in the body. Indicate the tests ordered before an organ transplant is done, and methods used to prevent transplant rejection. Give examples of immune deficiency diseases and of hypersensitivity states. Cite factors involved in autoimmune disease. Describe changes in immunity that occurs with aging. Briefly describe the role of the nervous system in regulating the immune response. Topic of Study: Respiratory System Identify the organs forming the respiratory passageway(s) in descending order until the alveoli are reached. Describe the location, structure, and function of each of the following: nose, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, and larynx. List and describe several protective mechanisms of the respiratory system. Distinguish between conducting and respiratory zone structures. Describe the makeup of the respiratory membrane, and relate structure to function. Describe the gross structure of the lungs and pleurae. Explain the functional importance of the partial vacuum that exists in the intrapleural space. Relate Boyle s law to the events of inspiration and expiration. 13

14 Explain the relative roles of the respiratory muscles and lung elasticity in producing the volume changes that cause air to flow into and out of the lungs. List several physical factors that influence pulmonary ventilation. Explain and compare the various lung volumes and capacities. Define dead space. Indicate types of information that can be gained from pulmonary function tests. State Dalton s law of partial pressures and Henry s law. Describe how atmospheric and alveolar air differs in composition, and explain these differences. Relate Dalton s and Henry s laws to events of external and internal respiration. Describe how oxygen is transported in the blood, and explain how oxygen loading and unloading is affected by temperature, ph, BPG, and PCO₂. Describe carbon dioxide transport in the blood. Describe the neural controls of respiration. Compare and contrast the influences of arterial ph, arterial partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide, lung reflexes, volition, and emotions on respiratory rate and depth. Compare and contrast the hyperpnea of exercise with hyperventilation. Describe the process and effects of acclimatization to high altitude. Compare the causes and consequences of chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, tuberculosis, and lung cancer. Trace the embryonic development of the respiratory system. Describe normal changes that occur in the respiratory system from infancy to old age. Semester 2 Quarter 4 Topic of Study: Digestive System and Nutrition Describe the function of the digestive system, and differentiate between organs of the alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs. List and define the major processes occurring during digestive system activity. Describe stimuli and controls of digestive activity. Describe the location and function of the peritoneum. Define retroperitoneal and name the retroperitoneal organs. Define splanchic circulation. Describe the importance of the hepatic portal system. Describe the tissue composition and the general function of each of the four layers of the alimentary canal. Describe the gross and microscopic anatomy and the basic functions of the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus. 14

15 Describe the composition and functions of saliva, and explain how salivation is regulated. Explain the dental formula and differentiate clearly between deciduous and permanent teeth. Describe the mechanisms of chewing and swallowing. Identify structural modifications of the wall of the stomach that enhance the digestive process. Name the cell types responsible for secreting the various components of gastric juice. Describe the importance of each component in stomach activity. Describe stomach structure and indicate changes in the basic alimentary canal structure that aid its digestive function. Explain how gastric secretion and stomach motility are regulated. Define and account for the alkaline tide. Identify and describe structural modifications of the wall of the small intestine that enhance the digestive process. Differentiate between the roles of the various cell types of the intestinal mucosa. Describe the function of local intestinal hormones and paracrines. Describe the histologic anatomy of the liver. State the role of bile in digestion and describe how its entry into the small intestine is regulated. Describe the role of the gallbladder. State the role of pancreatic juice in digestion. Describe how entry of pancreatic juice into the small intestine is regulated. List the major functions of the large intestine. Describe the regulation of defecation. List the enzymes involved in chemical digestion; name the foodstuffs on which they act. List the end products of protein, fat, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid digestion. Describe the process of absorption of breakdown products of foodstuffs that occurs in the small intestine. Describe embryonic development of the digestive system. Describe abnormalities of the gastrointestinal tract at different stages of life. Define nutrient, essential nutrient, and calorie. List the six major nutrient categories. Note important sources and main cellular uses. Distinguish between simple and complex carbohydrate sources. Indicate the major uses of carbohydrates in the body. Indicate uses of fats in the body. Distinguish between saturated, unsaturated, and trans fatty acid sources. Distinguish between nutritionally complete and incomplete proteins. Indicate uses of proteins in the body. Define nitrogen balance and indicate possible causes of positive and negative nitrogen balance. Distinguish between fat- and water-soluble vitamins, and list the vitamins in each group. 15

16 For each vitamin, list important sources, body functions, and important consequences of its deficit or excess. List minerals essential for health; indicate important dietary sources and describe how each is used. Define metabolism. Explain how catabolism and anabolism differ. Define oxidation and reduction and indicate the importance of these reactions in metabolism. Indicate the role of coenzymes used in cellular oxidation reactions. Explain the difference between substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation. Summarize the important events and products of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport. Define glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis. Describe the process by which fatty acids are oxidized for energy. Define ketone bodies, and indicate the stimulus for their formation. Describe how amino acids are metabolized for energy. Describe the need for protein synthesis in body cells. Explain the concept of amino acid or carbohydrate fat pools, and describe pathways by which substances in these pools can be interconverted. List important events of the absorptive and postabsorptive states, and explain how these events are regulated. Describe several metabolic functions of the liver. Differentiate between LDLs and HDLs relative to their structures and major roles in the body. Explain what is meant by body energy balance. Describe some theories of food intake regulation. Define basal metabolic rate and total metabolic rate. Name factors that influence each. Distinguish between core and shell body temperature. Describe how body temperature is regulated, and indicate the common mechanisms regulating heat production/retention and heat loss from the body. Describe the effects of inadequate protein intake on the fetal nervous system. Describe the cause and consequences of the low metabolic rate typical of the elderly. List ways that medications commonly used by aged people may influence their nutrition and health. Topic of Study: Urinary System Describe the gross anatomy of the kidney and its coverings. Trace the blood supply through the kidney. Describe the anatomy of a nephron. 16

17 Describe the forces (pressures) that promote or counteract glomerular filtration. Compare the intrinsic and extrinsic controls of the glomerular filtration rate. Describe the mechanisms underlying water and solute reabsorption from the renal tubules into the peritubular capillaries. Describe how sodium and water reabsorption is regulated in the distal tubule and collecting duct. Describe the importance of tubular secretion and list several substances that are secreted. Describe the mechanisms responsible for the medullary osmotic gradient. Explain formation of dilute versus concentrated urine. Define renal clearance and explain how this value summarizes the way a substance is handled by the kidney. Describe the normal physical and chemical properties of urine. List several abnormal urine components, and name the condition characterized by the presence of detectable amounts of each. Describe the general location, structure, and function of the ureters. Describe the general location, structure, and function of the urinary bladder. Describe the general location, structure, and function of the urethra. Compare the course, length, and functions of the male urethra with those of the female. Define micturition and describe its neural control. Trace the embryonic development of the urinary organs. List several changes in urinary system anatomy and physiology that occur with age. List the factors that determine body water content and describe the effect of each factor. Indicate the relative fluid volume and solute composition of the fluid compartments of the body. Contrast the overall osmotic effects of electrolytes and nonelectrolytes. Describe factors that determine fluid shifts in the body. List the routes by which water enters and leaves the body. Describe feedback mechanisms that regulate water intake and hormonal controls of water output in urine. Explain the importance of obligatory water losses. Describe possible causes and consequences of dehydration, hypotonic hydration, and edema. Indicate routes of electrolyte entry and loss from the body. Describe the importance of ionic sodium in fluid and electrolyte balance of the body, and indicate its relationship to normal cardiovascular system functioning. Describe mechanisms involved in regulating sodium balance, blood volume, and blood pressure. Explain how potassium, calcium, and anion balances in plasma are regulated. List important sources of acids in the body. Name the three major chemical buffer systems of the body and describe how they resist ph changes. Describe the influence of the respiratory system on acid-base balance. 17

18 Describe how the kidneys regulate hydrogen and bicarbonate ion concentrations in the blood. Distinguish between acidosis and alkalosis resulting from respiratory and metabolic factors. Describe the importance of respiratory and renal compensations to acid-base balance. Explain why infants and the aged are at greater risk for fluid and electrolyte imbalances than are young adults. Topic of Study: Reproductive System Describe the structure and function of the testes, and explain the importance of their location in the scrotum. Describe the structure of the penis and indicate its role in the reproductive process. Describe the location, structure, and function of the accessory reproductive organs of the male. Discuss the sources and functions of semen. Describe the phases of the male sexual response. Define meiosis. Compare and contrast it to mitosis. Outline events of spermatogenesis. Discuss hormonal regulation of testicular function and the physiological effects of testosterone on male reproductive anatomy. Describe the location, structure, and function of the ovaries. Describe the location, structure, and function of each of the organs of the female reproductive duct system. Describe the anatomy of the female external genitalia. Discuss the structure and function of the mammary glands. Describe the process of oogenesis and compare it to spermatogenesis. Describe the ovarian cycle phases, and relate them to events of oogenesis. Describe the regulation of the ovarian and uterine cycles. Discuss the physiological effects of estrogens and progesterone. Describe the phases of the female sexual response. Describe the infectious agents and modes of transmission of gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, trichomoniasis, genital warts, and genital herpes. Discuss the determination of genetic sex and prenatal development of male and female structures. Note the significant events of puberty and menopause. Describe the importance of sperm capacitation. Explain the mechanism of the slow block to polyspermy. Define fertilization. Explain the process and product of cleavage. 18

19 Describe implantation. Describe placenta formation, and list placental functions. Name and describe the formation, location, and function of the extraembryonic membranes. Describe gastrulation and its consequence. Define organogenesis and indicate the important roles of the three primary germ layers in this process. Describe unique features of the fetal circulation. Indicate the duration of the fetal period, and note the major events of fetal development. Describe functional changes in maternal reproductive organs and in the cardiovascular, respiratory, and urinary systems during pregnancy. Indicate the effects of pregnancy on maternal metabolism and posture. Explain how labor is initiated, and describe the three stages of labor. Outline the events leading to the first breath of a newborn. Describe changes that occur in the fetal circulation after birth. Explain how the breasts are prepared for lactation. Describe some techniques of ART including IVF, ZIFT, and GIFT. (XV) Compare the anatomy of other animals to a human. 19