Name Date Period. Personal Protective Equipment. 1.1.a. What causes death?

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1 PBS End of Course Exam Review (Hisrich & Coerper) 50 MC Lesson 1.1: Investigating the Scene Understandings 1. Principles of biomedical science can be used to investigate the circumstances surrounding a mysterious death. 2. Experiments are designed to find answers to testable questions. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Recognize that processing a crime scene involves purposeful documentation of the conditions at the scene and the collection of any physical evidence. Describe how evidence at a crime scene, such as blood, hair, fingerprints, and shoeprints can help forensic investigators determine what might have occurred and help identify or exonerate potential suspects. Recognize that bloodstain patterns left at a crime scene can help investigators establish the events that took place during the crime. Recognize that all external variables in an experiment need to be controlled. Analyze key information gathered at a simulated crime scene. Design a controlled experiment. Graph and analyze data to determine the height associated with bloodstain patterns. Biomedical Science Control Group Dependent Variable Experiment Forensic Science Hypothesis Independent Variable Negative Control Personal Protective Equipment Positive Control 1.1.a. What causes death? Name Date Period The application of the principles of the natural sciences, especially biology and physiology, to clinical medicine. The group in an experiment where the independent variable being tested is not applied so that it may serve as a standard for comparison against the experimental group where the independent variable is applied. The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested. A research study conducted to determine the effect that one variable has upon another variable. The application of scientific knowledge to questions of civil and criminal law. Clear prediction of the anticipated results of an experiment. The variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher. Control group where conditions produce a negative outcome. Negative control groups help identify outside influences which may be present that were not accounted for when the procedure was created. Specialized clothing or equipment, worn by an employee for protection against infectious materials (as defined by OSHA). Group expected to have a positive result, allowing the researcher to show that the experimental set up was capable of producing results. The failure of one system can cause failure of next ending in lack of brain activity 1.1.b. What clues may be found at a scene of a mysterious death that may help to determine the cause of death? Vomit, blood, fingerprints, DNA, saliva, bite marks, bullets, poison, etc 1.1.c. If someone was interested in a career with responsibility to determine the cause of death, what careers should he or she consider and investigate? Forensic Pathologist (Medical Examiner) Toxicologist Approximate percent of ite Unit. Lesson Approximate Percent 1.1 2% 1.2 6% 1.3 4% 2.1 6% 2.2 7% 2.3 6% 3.1 6% 3.2 8% 3.3 5% 3.4 5% 4.1 8% 4.2 8% 4.3 7% 4.4 6% % 6.1 4% Medical doctor that primarily does autopsies and determines cause of death PhD (usually) who tests body fluids (blood, vitreous humor, urine) for presence of

2 Toxicologist Coroner Lesson 1.2: DNA Analysis Understandings 1. Human DNA is a unique code of over three billion base pairs that provides a genetic blueprint of an individual. 2. DNA is packaged as chromosomes, which each contain numerous genes, or segments of DNA sequence that code for traits. 3. DNA from all living organisms has the same basic structure the differences are in the sequences of the nucleotides. 4. Restriction enzymes recognize and cut specific sequences in DNA. 5. Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments based on size and is used in Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Describe the relationship between DNA, genes, and chromosomes. Describe the structure of DNA. Describe the structure of a nucleotide. Explain how restriction enzymes cut DNA. Describe how gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments. Recognize that gel electrophoresis can be used to examine DNA differences between individuals. Demonstrate how restriction enzymes work. Demonstrate the steps of gel electrophoresis and analyze the resulting restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs). Adenine Chromosome Cytosine Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Gel Electrophoresis Gene Guanine Helix Model Nucleotide Restriction Enzyme Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs) Thymine PhD (usually) who tests body fluids (blood, vitreous humor, urine) for presence of toxins & medications to help determine cause of death Elected official that works with police & helps decide whether to have autopsy & whether a crime has been committed 1.1.d. What are examples of human body systems? 1.1.e. What organs make up the different body systems? A component of nucleic acids, energy- carrying molecules such as ATP, and certain coenzymes. Chemically, it is a purine base. A with T in complementary base pairing. Any of the usually linear bodies in the cell nucleus that contain the genetic material. A component of nucleic acids that carries hereditary information in DNA and RNA in cells. Chemically, it is a pyrimidine base. C with G in complementary base pairing. A double- stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell s proteins. The separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel. A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses). A component of nucleic acids that carries hereditary information in DNA and RNA in cells. Chemically, it is a purine base. Something spiral in form. A simplified version of something complex used, for example, to analyze and solve problems or make predictions. A building block of DNA, consisting of a five- carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group. A degradative enzyme that recognizes specific nucleotide sequences and cuts up DNA. Differences in DNA sequence on homologous chromosomes that can result in different patterns of restriction fragment lengths (DNA segments resulting from treatment with restriction enzymes). A component of nucleic acid that carries hereditary information in DNA in cells. Chemically, it is a pyrimidine base.

3 4.3.a. What are chromosomes made of? 4.3.c. What is the relationship between chromosomes, DNA, & genes? Chromosomes are tightly would packages of DNA that each contain multiple genes (from about 20 to more than 100 each). In order to package itself as tightly as possible, the DNA winds itself around histone proteins. However, DNA is a different kind of molecule than a protein. Proteins are made of 20 different kinds of amino acids, whereas DNA is made of the 4 nucleotides adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thyamine. 4.3.b. What is DNA? DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid and is the 4 th kind of macromolecule (in addition to proteins, carbohydrates & lipids. It is found in the nucleus of the cells of living organisms, from strawberries to grass to flies to humans. It has the structure of a double helix, with two complimentary strands held together by hydrogen bonds. Adenine always pairs with thymine & cytosine always pairs with guanine. The name comes from the fact that the sugar attached to each nucleotide is deoxyribose & the building blocks of DNA are nucleic acids. DNA was first isolated in 1869, but wasn t found to be the molecule of heredity until Since DNA is too small to see with a microscope, models can be used to help show the structure. 4.3.d. Does every cell in an organism have the same DNA? Every cell with a nucleus contains all the chromosomes of the individual and all the DNA. The tissues and cells look and have different functions because different genes are turned on in each of the cells. 4.3.e. How do scientists isolate DNA in order to study it? 1. Break open the cells (lysis) to get the DNA out of the nucleus this step requires the use of a buffer to maintain ph (DNA is ph sensitive) 2. Removing membrane lipids using detergent 3. Removing proteins by adding the enzyme protease (optional) 4. Precipitating out the DNA, using ice cold alcohol

4 The DNA forms a supernatant floating on the surface. It can be removed using an instrument like a toothpick. 4.3.f. How much DNA is in a single human cell? A human genome is 46 chromosomes, with a total of 3 billion base pairs. Each base pair is meters long. 3 x 10 9 base pairs * 3.4 x meters/bp = 1 m of DNA. Other estimates are up to 3 meters. For more information on gel electrophoresis and restriction enzymes, look at Lesson 4.3: Heart Dysfunction. Lesson 1.3: The Findings Understandings 6. The purpose of an autopsy is to answer any questions about the illness, cause of death, and/or any co- existing conditions.

5 7. Determining the manner of death involves the investigation of many aspects, including the medical condition of the victim, the internal and external examination of the body, the chemical and microscopic analysis of tissues and body fluids, and the analysis of all evidence found at the scene. 8. A comprehensive set of standards and practices is necessary in order to give patients specific rights regarding their personal health information. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Describe how an autopsy is performed and the types of information it provides to officials regarding the manner and cause of death. Recognize that a variety of biomedical science professionals are involved in crime scene analysis and determination of manner of death in mysterious death cases. Interpret information from an autopsy report to predict the manner of death. Explain the importance of confidentiality when dealing with patients, and describe the major patient protections written into the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). Analyze patient confidentiality scenarios. Autopsy Bibliography Citation Documentation Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) Medical Examiner An examination of the body after death usually with such dissection as will expose the vital organs for determining the cause of death. A document showing all the sources used to research information. A written reference to a specific work (book, article, dissertation, report, musical composition, etc.) by a particular author or creator which identifies the document in which the work may be found. The act of creating citations to identify resources used in writing a work. A comprehensive set of standards and practices designed to give patients specific rights regarding their personal health information (anything that can indicate the patient name, condition, insurance, dates, etc). A physician who performs an autopsy when death may be accidental or violent. He or she may also serve in some jurisdictions as the coroner. 1.1.k. What is an autopsy and how can it be used to determine the cause of death? A medical examiner opens up the body cavities, weighs and examines organs, extracts fluids for a toxicologist to analyze. Autopsies ( self eyes ) let medical examiners see things with their own eyes. It s also called a postmortem ( after death ) and used to determine cause of death. Autopsies on people who have been murdered fall into the category of forensic ( crime ) science. 1.1.l. Why is confidentiality of patient information important? 1.1.l. Who should keep patient information confidential? Everyone deserves privacy to prevent embarrassment and possible damage to relationships or loss of job. Biomedical scientists (EMTs, Medical Examiners, any kind of doctor, nurses, pharmacists, etc,) can be fired or sued or even lose their license for violating HIPAA. 1.1.m. Is there ever a time when patient confidentiality should be broken? Patient confidentiality can be broken for a patient who is under 18 (parents have rights to their info) or someone who signed a release form (for a spouse, etc, to have access) or in cases of suspected abuse Lesson 2.1: What is Diabetes? Understandings 9. Diabetes is a disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels and is caused by insufficient insulin or the inability of the insulin to function properly.

6 10. Diabetes can be diagnosed and further characterized as Type 1 or Type 2 by measuring glucose and insulin levels in the blood or urine. 11. The human body uses feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis. 12. It is important to evaluate a source of information to ensure the information is accurate and unbiased. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Recognize that insulin is the protein that regulates the transfer of glucose into body cells. Recognize and diagram the feedback action of the hormones insulin and glucagon in blood glucose maintenance Graph laboratory blood glucose and insulin level data and interpret results. Compare Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. Demonstrate the role of insulin in transferring glucose from blood into cells. Evaluate web resources to determine their level of credibility. Glucagon Glucose Tolerance Test Homeostasis Hormone Insulin Negative Feedback Positive Feedback Type 1 Diabetes Type 2 Diabetes A protein hormone secreted by pancreatic alpha cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin. Glucose exits liver cells via GLUT2 (bidirectional). A test of the body s ability to metabolize glucose after fasting. Measure glucose levels after 2 hours. A blood sugar level less than 140 mg/dl is normal. A reading of more than 200 mg/dl after two hours indicates diabetes. A reading between 140 and 199 mg/dl indicates prediabetes. To determine TID versus T2D, an insulin test is required, if the insulin levels change relative to the glucose than the person has T2D and just isn t sensitive to the insulin. The maintenance of relatively stable internal physiological conditions (as body temperature or the ph of blood) in higher animals under fluctuating environmental conditions. A product of living cells that circulates in blood and produces a specific, often stimulatory, effect on the activity of cells that are often far from the source of the hormone. A protein hormone secreted by the pancreatic beta cells that decrease blood glucose levels by causing GLUT 4 transport, allowing glucose into the cell. A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation decrease stimulus. Feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output increase stimulus. Diabetes of a form that usually develops during childhood or adolescence and is characterized by a severe deficiency of insulin, leading to high blood glucose levels. Autoimmune disorder. Diabetes of a form that develops especially in adults and most often obese individuals and that is characterized by high blood glucose resulting from impaired insulin utilization coupled with the body s inability to compensate with increased insulin production. Insulin resistance. A feedback mechanism is just when one thing happens in response to another thing sort of like a chain reaction. 3.4.b. In what ways do negative feedback and positive feedback differ? Positive Feedback Similarities Negative Feedback create a larger & larger response until something major occurs to stop the process (represented by single loop) involve hormones, controlled by Endocrine system one thing happens in response to another necessary for health (both GOOD!!) happen inside the body, but also outside (society, environment, etc) maintain homeostasis (keep things same) trigger results in a correction in order to keep BALANCE Labor until child is born Temperature, blood pressure, blood

7 Laboruntil child is born Growthuntil maturity Blood clottinguntil clot form Menstrual cycleuntil menstration 3.4.e. What is the role of insulin in our body? 3.4. f. How does insulin accomplish its job? Insulin is a hormone (particular kind of protein) produced by the pancreas. It s job is to let sugar into cells. In a non-diabetic, insulin maintains homeostasis of blood sugar levels, but in a diabetic, homeostasis is not maintained, causing lots of problems! Temperature, blood pressure, blood sugar levels, erythropoiesis (creation of new red blood cells), hunger, sleep MOST LOOPS IN BODY ARE NEGATIVE Cells are all locked in a way and only let certain materials in. Insulin acts like a key, unlocking cells to let in glucose whenever levels in the blood get high. It works via a negative feedback loop (see below). 3.4.g. What is diabetes? 3.4.h. How do Type I and Type II diabetes differ? Type 1 Diabetes Both Type 2 Diabetes Usually occurs in children (used to be called Juvenile Diabetes ) An autoimmune disorder, in which the immune system attacks the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas Sugar can t get into cells because the pancreas has stopped producing insulin 3.4.i. Sugar cannot get into cells Result in hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) & dehydration of cells Can lead to cardiovascular problems (high blood pressure, heart attacks) Can lead to blindness Can cause need for amputation of toes or even limbs, due to poor circulation. What are the current treatments for Type I and Type II diabetes? Type 1 Diabetes Only treatment is insulin without it there is certain death. Patients have option of injections or an insulin pump. Type 2 Diabetes Usually occurs in adults (used to be called Adult Onset ), especially those who are overweight An endocrine disorder caused be a person s lifestyle habits making cells reject insulin Sugar can t get into cells because they ve become insulin-resistant & no longer recognize it as the key Reversible IF lifestyle changes are made. Not typically treated with insulin usually treated with lifestyle changes (exercise, limiting carbohydrates, etc) & oral medications. Insulin may become necessary over time if condition worsens (by then it s considered irreversible because of long-term damage to the pancreas.

8 1.1 i. Are all sources of information accurate and reliable? Sources are listed as citations in a bibliography. Primary sources are firsthand accounts (Darwin s Origin of Species & secondary sources reference primary sources (modern biology books). We should always cite all sources used to avoid plagiarism. Students use sources, but outline and summarize and rewrite the information to show their own understanding when writing answers to conclusion questions. 1.1.j. How can you tell if information on the Internet is accurate and reliable? Anything with answers in the name are NOT (i.e. Yahooanswers, wikianswers, etc). If anyone can post there, it s NOT reliable. Government sites (.gov) and educational pages (.edu) are usually MOST reliable. Information is usually reliable if the SAME answer can be found on MULTIPLE sites (that s why it s good to have documentation of at least 2 sources). Lesson 2.2: The Science of Food Understandings 13. Foods contain macromolecules, particularly carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, which are broken down and reassembled for use in the human body. 14. The human body utilizes nutrients, vitamins, and minerals consumed in food to maintain overall health and homeostasis. 15. Energy is stored in the chemical bonds of the macromolecules found in food. Knowledge and Skills It is expected students will: Describe which foods are high in carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Recognize that the nutritional content of food helps individuals make decisions about diet and maintain good health. Describe basic nutritional terms as well as identify the role of each nutrient in the body. Recognize that the structure of macromolecules is related to their function in the human body. Explain the process of calorimetry and how it is used to measure the amount of energy in a food. Analyze food labels and food choices for nutritional content. Demonstrate the processes of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis. Perform calorimetric measurements on food items and interpret the results. Adenosine tri- phosphate (ATP) Amino Acid Calorie Carbohydrate Chemical Bond Chemical Indicator Chemical Reaction Compound Covalent bond Dehydration Synthesis Disaccharide A compound composed of adenosine and three phosphate groups that supplies energy for many biochemical cellular processes by undergoing enzymatic hydrolysis. An organic monomer which serves as a building block of proteins. The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C; also the amount of heat energy that 1 g of water releases when it cools by 1 C. The Calorie (with a capital C), usually used to indicate the energy content of food, is a kilocalorie. A sugar in the form of a monosaccharide, disaccharide or polysaccharide. An attractive force that holds together the atoms, ions, or groups of atoms in a molecule or compound. A substance (as a dye) used to show visually usually by its capacity for color change, the condition of a solution with respect to the presence of free acid or alkali or some other substance. Chemical transformation or change; the interaction of chemical entities. A substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio. A type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons. A chemical reaction in which two molecules are bonded together with the removal of a water molecule. A double sugar molecule made of two monosaccharides bonded together through dehydration synthesis.

9 Element Glucose Homeostasis Hydrolysis Ionic bond Lipid Macromolecule Molecule Monomer Monosaccharide Nutrient Polymer The smallest particle of a substance that retains all the properties of the substance and is composed of one or more atoms. A monomer of carbohydrate, simple sugar. The maintenance of relatively stable internal physiological conditions (as body temperature or the ph of blood) in higher animals under fluctuating environmental conditions. A chemical process that splits a molecule by adding water. A chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions. One of a family of compounds including fats, phospholipids, and steroids that is insoluble in water. A type of giant molecule formed by joining smaller molecules which includes proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids. Two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds. The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer. A single sugar molecule such as glucose or fructose, the simplest type of sugar. A substance that is needed by the body to maintain life and health. A large molecule consisting of many repeating chemical units or molecules linked together. Polysaccharide Protein A polymer of thousands of simple sugars formed by dehydration synthesis. A three dimensional polymer made of monomers of amino acids. 3.2.a. What are the main structural components of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids? Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are all macromolecules ( big molecules ) because they are very large and consist of lots of atoms. Nucleic acids (DNA & RNA) are also macromolecules. Building Blocks Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Monosaccharides ( single sugars ) Amino acids Hydrophilic heads & hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains) Macromolecule Carbohydrates & proteins are polymers & have many parts. Polymers are made of monomers (simple building blocks). The monomers that make up carbohydrates are monosaccharides & the monomers that make up proteins are amino acids. Complex carbohydrates (starch and fiber) are considered polysaccharides

10 proteins are amino acids. Complex carbohydrates (starch and fiber) are considered polysaccharides ( many sugars ) because they have 3 or more monosaccharides that make them up. 3.2.c. What types of foods supply carbohydrates, proteins and lipids? Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids grains, fruits, veggies, dairy, sweets meat, beans, nuts, eggs, dairy meat, oils, nuts, veggies, dairy 3.2.b. How do carbohydrates, proteins and lipids differ in structure and function? 3.2.g. How can macromolecules be detected in foods? Carbohydrates Proteins General Characteristics Primary functions Detection via chemical indicators Made up of carbon rings Monosaccharides (one ring) ***fructose, glucose & galactose Disaccharides (2 rings) ***lactose & sucrose Polysaccharides (3+ rings) ***also called complex carbs ***starch, fiber & cellulose Twisty, complicated, folded, like tangled yarn Quick energy (complex carbs give longer term energy & unused carbs are converted to and stored as fat for long term storage) Build body tissues, send chemical signals (as hormones), & heal/repair Monosaccharides detected with Benedict s solution turns murky when heated when present Starch (a polysaccharide) detected with iodine turns purple when present Detected with Buiret solution turns purple when present Lipids Have a head that is hydrophilic ( loves water ) and one or more fatty acid chain tails that are hydrophobic ( hate water ) 3.2.h. What are some of the limitations of chemical indicators? Store energy long term, allow nerves to function, cushion organs Detected by rubbing against paper leaves greasy smear when present If food has much color, it can cover up the color changes. For instance, a dark soda like Coke wouldn t get the kind of clear results that a clear liquid like Sprite would. Chocolate graham crackers would be hard to interpret a starch test on. Also, many indicators can tell what TYPE of molecule (i.e. Benedict s can tell simple sugars), but not narrow it down past that (was it glucose, fructose or galactose?). 3.2.d. What is dehydration synthesis? 3.2.e. What is hydrolysis? 3.2.f. hydrolysis relate to food? How do dehydration synthesis and

11 Dehydration synthesis ( remove water & come together ) Comparison Hydrolysis ( split with water ) They are exact opposites infinitely reversible reactions This is the method by which macromolecules are built up in plants & animals it s how things like complex carbohydrates & proteins form. As 2 molecules join to form one, they give off a water molecule. It s how things GROW. This requires ATP (energy). This is the way macromolecules are broken down during digestion. Each water molecule can break one bond, breaking polymers down into monomers for example polysaccharides (like starch) break down into simple sugars & proteins break down into amino acids. This results in the creation of ATP (energy). ***Note: Electrolyte was listed as a key term, but I cannot figure out how it fits in with ANY essential question! It s basically a fancy word for salts though & they re needed for metabolism and muscle movement (in small quantities). 3.1.a. What are the nutrients identified on food labels? Serving Size all values below it are for one serving Calories total energy Total Fat includes all fats, long term energy source & component of cells, supports brain (should be <30% of diet) Saturated fat bad for heart, should be avoided Trans fat worst kind, should be avoided Unsaturated fat best kind, good for heart, calculate by subtracting other fats from total fat Cholesterol not necessary, liver makes it, limit intake Sodium table salt, limit to keep blood pressure healthy, but get some Total Carbs includes all carbs, quick energy source, whole grains are best (should be bulk of diet) Dietary fiber from plants, not digestible, helps digestive system (helps you poop) Sugars not necessary for health, limit them Vitamins and minerals make sure to get enough, many can be obtained from fruits/vegetables and whole grains. 3.1.b. How is the amount of energy in a food determined? Starch better than sugars, calculate by subtracting fiber and sugars from total carbs Protein needed to build muscle and repair cells, should be about 10% of total calories

12 The energy in food is determined via calorimetry ( energy measurement ), in which a food item is burned to break the chemical bonds in the compounds that make up the food and the energy from the bonds is turned into heat/light & the heat is captured in water. The change in mass of the food and change in temperature of the water can be used to determine the Cal/g (energy per unit mass) of the food material. Food energy is measured in calories ( heat measurement ), with one calorie being the amount of heat energy that will raise 1 g of water 1ºC. 3.1.e. What is the role of a chemical bond in energy transfers? Energy is released when chemical bonds are broken in chemical reactions. For instance, the body gets energy from breaking down food molecules during digestion. Energy is also given off if the molecules are broken apart by burning the foods. 3.1.c. What is the basic structure of all matter? Food is a type of matter because it has mass and takes up space. All matter is made up of atoms (there are about 100 different kind of atoms and different kinds of atoms are called elements ) & the atoms form bonds to make compounds. A compound in which the atoms share electrons is formed by a covalent bond. Most of the nutrients that living things take in and are made of are bound by covalent bonds. There s another kind of bond, called an ionic bond, in which the atoms are ions (have opposite charges from losing or gaining electrons) and are attracted because of their opposite charges. Materials like salts have ionic bonds & are formed by ions. Matter is usually a mixture of different molecules (different types of compounds). 3.1.d. What is a chemical reaction? A chemical reaction is when a molecule forms from atoms coming together or when the bonds between the atoms are broken. Whenever that happens, there are signs that it has happened. One or more of the following will happen: 1. Energy change (it will glow and/or heat will be absorbed or released) 2. Color change (a new color will show up) 3. Odor change (a smell will be given off) 4. Precipitate (a solid will form from 2 liquids) 5. Gas produced (a gas will be given off) 3.1.f. What is the relationship between nutrients, food, chemical reactions, and energy? Food is made of nutrients & the nutrients are made of molecules. The molecules can be broken down through chemical reactions, giving off energy. 3.1.g. Why is water balance such an important factor in maintaining homeostasis? Water helps maintain homeostasis ( staying same ), keeping fluid levels constant in the body. Covalent bonds hold the atoms WITHIN a water molecule together & the of water (slight positive charge at

13 bonds hold the atoms WITHIN a water molecule together & the polarity of water (slight positive charge at one end and slight negative charge at the other) make water molecules attract to each other and attract the ions in salts, making water the universal solvent, dissolving more solutes than any other liquid & forming many different kinds of solutions. Salts are very hydrophilic ( water loving ) & dissolve easily in water. 3.1.h. Are sports drinks a valuable tool in maintaining water balance? Sports drinks are really only useful for hardcore athletes, exercising for multiple hours a day. For most people, water is the best way to remain hydrated. Hardcore athletes may need the carbs from the sugars in sports drinks to maintain their energy levels and may need the electrolytes (salts) to keep their muscles working. But for most of us, we don t need the extra sugar & salts & should simply drink water. Lesson 2.3: Life with Diabetes Understandings 16. Diabetes affects the overall health of the individual as well as aspects of daily life. 17. Blood glucose concentration affects osmosis, the movement of water in and out of body cells. 18. Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes can cause significant complications in many human body systems. 19. Scientists need to make sure that what they present is accurate and is communicated in a way that keeps interest and focus. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Recognize that a wide variety of treatment and management medical interventions are available to diabetics. Recognize that regulation of blood sugar is necessary to avoid severe and life- threatening diabetic emergencies. Be able to advise a patient newly diagnosed with diabetes on treating and living with the disease. Compare Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. Demonstrate how water moves across a cell membrane to balance the level of dissolved solutes on either side. Diagram complications of diabetes on a human body graphic organizer. Assess the qualities of a successful oral and visual presentation. Hemoglobin A1c Hyperglycemia Hypertonic Hypoglycemia Hypotonic Isotonic Osmosis Solute Solution Solvent A test that measures the level of hemoglobin A1c in the blood as a means of determining the average blood sugar concentrations for the preceding two to three months. An excess of sugar in the blood. In comparing two solutions, referring to the one with a greater solute concentration. Abnormal decrease of sugar in the blood. In comparing two solutions, referring to the one with a lower solute concentration. Having the same solute concentration as another solution. The movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. A substance that is dissolved in a solution. A liquid that is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The dissolving agent of a solution. Water is the most versatile solvent known d. What might happen to cells that are exposed to high concentrations of sugar? Effects on cells Too much sugar in blood means not enough is reaching cells. Cells use sugar (glucose) to make energy (ATP). If the sugar can t get in, the person lacks energy and will experience fatigue. For homeostasis, the solutions that make up blood and cells should be isotonic (same concentration in the solutions) In a diabetic, a Blood effects The sugar thickens the blood, causing less flow. That stresses the cardiovascular system & causes high blood pressure, blood clots, poor circulation (often resulting in blindness and/or need for amputation of toes or even limbs).

14 make up blood and cells should be isotonic (same concentration in the solutions) In a diabetic, a concentration gradient develops because the blood becomes hypertonic (greater concentration of solute) & the cells hypotonic (less concentration of solute) & osmosis draws the solvent (water) out of cells and into the bloodstream, dehydrating cells. That leads to constant hunger & thirst that isn t properly satiated with food/water intake limbs). Lesson 3.1: The Disease Understandings 20. Sickle cell disease is caused by an abnormal type of hemoglobin which causes red blood cells to become shaped like crescents or sickles. 21. Sickle cell disease and anemia cause many health problems and affect daily life for someone with the disease. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Explain the function of each of the major components of blood. Recognize that anemia is a deficiency in red blood cells or hemoglobin. Recognize that a hematocrit, a test performed to determine if someone is anemic, is the percent of the volume of whole blood that is composed of red blood cells. Compare normal vs. sickle- shaped red blood cells. Demonstrate how sickle- shaped red blood cells lead to decreased oxygen flow to body tissues. Create diary entries for a sickle cell patient and reflect on what living with sickle cell anemia is like. Anemia Blood Plasma Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells) Hematocrit Leukocytes (White Blood Cells) Sickle Cell Disease Thrombocytes (Platelets) A condition in which the blood is deficient in red blood cells, in hemoglobin, or in total volume. The pale yellow fluid portion of whole blood that consists of water and its dissolved constituents including, sugars, lipids, metabolic waste products, amino acids, hormones, and vitamins. Any of the hemoglobin- containing cells that carry oxygen to the tissues and are responsible for the red color of vertebrate blood. The percent of the volume of whole blood that is composed of red blood cells as determined by separation of red blood cells from the plasma usually by centrifugation. Any of the blood cells that are colorless, lack hemoglobin, contain a nucleus, and include the lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Individuals who are homozygous for the gene controlling hemoglobin S. The disease is characterized by the destruction of red blood cells and by episodic blocking of blood vessels by the adherence of sickle cells to the vascular endothelium. A minute colorless anucleate disklike body of mammalian blood that assists in blood clotting by adhering to other platelets and to damaged epithelium. 4.1.a. How do cells get the oxygen they need for energy production? Erythrocytes (red blood cells) contain a protein called hemoglobin ( round blood ) hundreds of molecules of it, actually. Hemoglobin binds to oxygen, picking it up from the alveoli and dropping it off in capillary beds throughout the bodies tissues. Hemoglobin is also the protein that picks up the carbon dioxide waste produced by all cells and brings it back to the alveoli so that the respiratory system can remove it from the body.

15 4.1.b. What do normal red blood cells look like when placed under a microscope? Normal red blood cells are round, but sort of flat in the middle (to increase surface area). The slide shown left is from a person with normal red blood cells. Most of the cells shown are erythrocytes. The large ones in the center are leukocytes (white blood cells) and the specks are thrombocytes (platelets). Lesson 3.2: It s in the Genes Understandings 22. Proteins are produced through the processes of transcription and translation. 23. Changes in the genetic material may cause changes in the structure and function of a protein and consequently the traits of an organism. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Recognize that the sequence of nucleotides in DNA determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Explain the process of protein synthesis. Explain how changes in the b- globin protein are due to the mutation associated with sickle cell disease. Demonstrate transcription and translation to create a simulated protein. Analyze the effect that base pair mutations have on a simulated protein. Manipulate computer simulated proteins to visualize the interactions between amino acids and analyze protein structural changes. Amino Acid Anticodon Codon Hydrophilic Hydrophobic Messenger RNA (mrna) Mutation Nucleotide Protein Protein Synthesis Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Ribosome Transcription Transfer RNA (trna) Translation An organic monomer which serves as a building block of proteins. A triplet of nucleotide bases in transfer RNA that identifies the amino acid carried and binds to a complementary codon in messenger RNA during protein synthesis at a ribosome. A three- nucleotide sequence of DNA or mrna that specifies a particular amino acid or termination signal; the basic unit of the genetic code. Having an affinity for water. Having an aversion to water; tending to coalesce and form droplets in water. A type of RNA, synthesized from DNA and attached to ribosomes in the cytoplasm; it specifies the primary structure of a protein. A rare change in the DNA of a gene, ultimately creating genetic diversity. The building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five- carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group. A three dimensional polymer made of monomers of amino acids. The creation of a protein from a DNA template. Also called gene expression and Central Dogma. A type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single- stranded; functions in protein synthesis and as the genome of some viruses. A cell organelle that functions as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm; consists of ribosomal RNA and protein molecules and is formed by combining two subunits. The synthesis of RNA on a DNA template. An RNA molecule that functions as an interpreter between nucleic acid and protein language by picking up specific amino acids and recognizing the appropriate codons in the mrna. The synthesis of a polypeptide using the genetic information encoded in an mrna molecule. There is a change of language from nucleotides to amino acids.

16 4.4.a. What is a gene? 4.4.b. What is the DNA code? 4.4.c. What is the connection between genes and proteins? A gene is a segment (piece) of a chromosome & is made of DNA. Genes range in size from about 1,000 base pairs to over 1 million base pairs (pairs of nucleotides) in length. Each gene codes for the production of one protein & each protein determines one trait. Our genes determine our heredity (traits like hair color, height, and even personality). Every 3 nucleotides is called a codon and codes for a different amino acid. A string of amino acids makes a protein. 4.4.d. How are proteins produced in a cell? TRANSCRIPTION First RNA polymerase transcribes the DNA in the nucleus of a cell. Transcription factors unwind the DNA and allow the ribonucleic acid (RNA) polymerase to transcribe one strand of the DNA into a single strand of mrna (messenger RNA). TRANSLATION mrna then travels through the nuclear membrane to go to the cytoplasm. The ribosomes in the cytoplasm translate the mrna, using trna (transfer RNA). Each trna molecule brings one amino acid to the mrna until a long string of amino acids forms, creating the primary structure of the protein. 4.4.e. How does the sequence of nucleotides in DNA determine the sequence of amino acids in a protein? The nucleotides in the DNA are transcribed into a complimentary (opposite) string of mrna. The only difference is that RNA contains uracil in place of thyamine. During translation, trna attaches the correct amino acid for each codon (group of 3 nucleotides). Each chain of amino acids formed is a protein. 4.2.f. What is a mutation? Mutations are mistakes in the DNA code. They can be caused by exposure to UV light, exposure to radioactive material, exposure to x-rays, aging, or just bad luck.

17 4.1.c. Why do some people have differently shaped red blood cells? People with sickle cell anemia have red blood cells with an abnormal shape. They are called sickle because they are shaped like the cutting tool called a sickle. Sickle cell anemia ( no blood ) is a recessive genetic trait that must be inherited from both parents. It s called anemia because the blood lacks normal hemoglobin. Hemoglobin contains two parts alpha globin and beta globin. In a person with sickle cell anemia, there is a mutation in the beta globin portion, resulting in the substitution of ONE incorrect amino acid, causing the entire protein to fold incorrectly. 4.5.e. How is sickle cell hemoglobin different from normal hemoglobin? Sickle cell hemoglobin simply has a single amino acid in the beta globin section that is different from that in normal hemoglobin. Instead of glutamic acid, a person with mutated hemoglobin has valine. Normal hemoglobin molecules don t attract each other, but mutated hemoglobin molecules do, causing them to clump (or polymerize) into long chains, pushing the blood cells into an elongated sickle shape. Valine is non-polar (and therefore hydrophobic) whereas glutamic acid is negatively charged, making it hydrophilic. The substitution of a hydrophobic amino acid for a hydrophilic one causes the protein to fold differently & behave differently. 4.4.f. What determines the shape of a protein? Protein shape is determined by the primary structure (sequence) of amino acids. Some amino acids are hydrophilic ( water loving ) & some are hydrophobic ( water hating ). That leads to forces of attraction and repulsion that cause the protein to fold into complex shapes.

18 4.4.h. If the DNA code is changed, does the shape of a protein change? 4.4.i. Can changing just one nucleotide in a gene change the shape of a protein? It depends. Most of the time, if the DNA code changes (called a mutation), the amino acid chain changes and that CAN cause a change in the shape of the protein. However, there are multiple codons that code for the SAME amino acid. For instance, if CCC becomes CCA, the amino acid coded for is still proline. Also, if a hydrophobic amino acid is replaced with another hydrophobic amino acid, they will both usually lead to the same folding. However, if a hydrophilic amino acid is replaced with a hydrophobic one, the protein shape will almost definitely change. That s the case with sickle cell hemoglobin. Only the exon portions of DNA code for proteins. The introns (also called junk DNA ) do not appear to code for proteins. Therefore if there is a mutation within an intron, the shape of the protein will not be altered. 4.4.j. Is it possible to design proteins that have specific characteristics? 4.4.k. How are proteins designed? Yes. That s what Genetic Engineers do. They create sequences of DNA that will result in particular sequences of amino acids to form the protein they want. The primary structure is the proper sequence of amino acids. The secondary structure creates the protein s backbone. The tertiary structure involves the way the side chains interact due to hydrophobic/hydrophilic interactions, hydrogen bonds, disulfide bridges & ionic bonds. Only some proteins have quaternary structure, formed by the way the polypeptides in a complex protein interact. More about amino acid structure: Every amino acid has at least 3 parts 1) The amino group (nitrogen bonded to 2 hydrogens), 2) the carboxyl group (carbon double bonded to oxygen and possibly to a hydroxyl group) and 3) the R-group (the part that is different in different amino acids. Hydrophilic amino acids have for their R-group a hydroxyl group (a hydrogen joined to an oxygen by a polar covalent bond), giving them a charge and making them water soluble. Because of the hydroxyl group, they are called alcohols. Hydrophobic amino acids lack the hydroxyl group & are non-polar (uncharged), making them insoluble in water. 4.5.f. What DNA mutations are directly linked to inherited diseases? Source: Autosomal mutations (shown in graphic left) are found in chromosome pairs 1-22 (not the sex chromosomes). The most common one are shown in the table left. Recessive diseases require a mutated allele to be inherited from each parent, whereas dominant disorders like dwarfism

19 like dwarfism (achondroplasia) require only one. Sickle cell disease is sometimes considered codominant because in low oxygen environments, the cells of a person with sickle cell TRAIT may become sickle, though under normal conditions they do not. Sex-linked mutations (carried on X-chromosome) include color-blindness, hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, vitamin D resistant rickets, fragile X syndrome, Congenital aqueductal stenosis (hydrocephalus) & more. 4.1.d. What effect does the altered shape of the red blood cell have on the health of the individual? The hemoglobin protein s abnormal shape causes the red blood cells to have an abnormal shape. The can still carry oxygen, but they tend to get stuck in capillaries and make it difficult for blood to circulate to all the body s tissues. The primary symptom of sickle cell anemia is pain, which is caused by lack of oxygen/nutrients to the body tissues. Complications of sickle cell anemia include swelling of hands and feet, enlargement of the spleen, increased infections, acute chest syndrome (like pneumonia), eye problems & more. The prognosis for a person with sickle cell is that there is no cure. Medications can treat the symptoms. Bone marrow and stem cell transplants can also reduce the effects. 4.1.e. What is the difference between someone having the sickle cell trait and having sickle cell anemia? Sickle Cell Trait Both Sickle Cell Anemia Normal hemoglobin Normal red blood cells Inherited one copy of the mutation No ill effects 4.1.f. Where in the world does Red blood cells have hemoglobin Have red blood cells Inherited the gene from parent(s) Have protection from malaria Occurs mostly in people descended from those in the tropics disease occur most often? Abnormal hemoglobin Sickle shaped red blood cells Inherited 2 copies of the mutation Many health complications

20 4.1.f. Where in the world does sickle cell disease occur most often? Sickle cell anemia occurs most in the tropics, in places like South America & Central Africa. It occurs there because the mutation protects from malaria, and malaria is a big killer in the tropics (temperatures allow mosquitos to thrive). There is no survival benefit to the trait in more Northern climates, so the disease wouldn t persist here. However, due to immigration sickle cell disease is a problem even in places like the United States. It is a problem in people whose ancestors come from the affected regions (African Americans, Indian Americans, Middle Eastern immigrants, South American immigrants, etc). Sickle cell is virtually non-existent in people of European descent. Lesson 3.3: Chromosomes Understandings 1. Chromosomes transfer genetic material from cell to cell as well as from generation to generation, in processes called mitosis and meiosis. 2. There are often several forms of each gene, some being dominant over the others. 3. There are many moral, ethical, and legal considerations surrounding the right to a person s tissues and organs. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Recognize that in order for cellular division to occur, exact copies of the DNA must be transferred to the resulting daughter cells. Recognize that chromosomes in reproductive cells contain genes that carry traits through the generations. Demonstrate the processes of mitosis and meiosis. Model the inheritance of genetic diseases. Analyze genotype to determine phenotype. Use proper techniques to examine, count, and measure chromosomes. Appraise the rights a person has to the use of his or her tissues and/or organs. 4.2.a. How does someone get sickle cell disease? They must inherit the recessive trait (mutation) from BOTH parents. 4.2.b. Can sickle cell disease spread from one person to another the same way as a cold or the flu? No. It s hereditary (passed from parents), NOT contagious like an infectious disease. 4.2.c. How are diseases inherited from parents? 4.2.i. Why does sickle cell disease run in families, yet is not present in every generation? All of our genetic material comes from our parents half from mom and half from dad. Sex cells (eggs and sperm) are produced through meiosis & always contain HALF of the parents genetic material. We each have 2 copies of every, one from each parent. When we have kids, we randomly pass them ONE of our two and our

21 every gene, one from each parent. When we have kids, we randomly pass them ONE of our two genes and our partner does the same. In the case of a recessive genetic disease like sickle cell anemia, a person must inherit the mutation from her mother AND father to have the disease. If they only inherit the mutation from ONE parent, the dominant trait (which is NORMAL) will be expressed and the person will have sickle cell trait (not sickle cell disease). That s why diseases like sickle cell can skip generations. 4.2.d. What are examples of human diseases that are inherited? Other genetic disorders include cystic fibrosis, Huntington s disease, triple X syndrome, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Down s Syndrome, Cry of the Cat, color blindness, hemophilia, Tay Sachs, Turner Syndrome, Polycystic kidney disease and many more. 4.2.e. What is a chromosome? 4.2.g. How many chromosomes do humans normally have? Chromosomes are made up of many genes that are all connected together in a long strand of DNA. Humans normally have 46 chromosomes (23 from mother and 23 from father), though it s possible to survive with 45 IF the missing chromosome is the sex chromosome X and the person is a female (Turner Syndrome). Otherwise the loss of a chromosome causes death. People can also survive with an extra chromosome (depending on the chromosome). Examples are Triple X Syndrome, Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21), Klinefelter s Syndrome (XXY) or Superman Syndrome (XYY). If an autosomal (non-sex) chromosome is missing, it is ALWAYS deadly & if there is no sex chromosome X (and the person has only a Y) it is ALWAYS deadly. Lesson 3.4: Inheritance Understandings 24. The expression of a trait through the generations of a family can be visualized using a pedigree. 25. A Punnett square is a simple graphical way of discovering all of the potential combinations of genotypes of an offspring and can be used to determine the percent chance of each genotype occurring. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Explain how pedigrees can be used to determine the mode of inheritance of genetic diseases. Draw and analyze pedigree charts to illustrate passage of a trait through generations. Determine and compare the experimental probability and the theoretical probability of inheriting a trait. Analyze pedigrees to calculate the probability of inheriting a trait or disease. Allele Chromosome Dominant Trait Gene Genotype Heredity Pedigree Phenotype Punnett Square Recessive Trait Any of the alternative forms of a gene that may occur at a given locus. Any of the usually linear bodies in the cell nucleus that contain the genetic material. A genetic trait is considered dominant if it is expressed in a person who has only one copy of the gene associated with the trait. A discrete unit of hereditary information. All or part of the genetic constitution of an individual or group. The transmission of traits from ancestor to descendant. A diagram of a family tree showing the occurrence of heritable characters in parents and offspring over multiple generations. The observable properties of an organism that are produced by the interaction of the genotype and the environment. A simple graphical way of discovering all of the potential combinations of genotypes of an offspring, given the parents genotypes. A condition that appears only in individuals who have received two copies of a mutant gene, one copy from each parent. Example: cystic fibrosis and sickle cell disease.

22 4.2.h. How are pedigrees used to track diseases? Pedigrees are used by genetic counselors to trace the history of a disease through families, determine the genotypes of people & therefore determine their risk of the disease (and their risk of passing on disorders). Pedigrees can be used to figure out the genotype and phenotype of an unknown ancestor, the genotypes of known, living family members & potential inheritance. 4.2.j. How can doctors and genetic counselors calculate the probability of a child inheriting a disease? This is a karyotype for a female with a normal chromosome count. Amniocentesis Karyotypes show an individual s chromosomes. They are used to diagnose chromosomal abnormalities (i.e. Triple X, Turner Syndrome, Klinefelter s Syndrome, Down s Syndrome, Cry of the Cat & Superman Syndrome). They can be used on an adult who suspects he has a chromosomal abnormality, but that is unusual. Typically they are done on a fetus at about 20 weeks gestation. The obstetrician must perform amniocentesis to extract genetic material. A karyotype of the genetic material is then created. It shows the 22 pairs (hopefully) of autosomal chromosomes and the single pair (hopefully) of sex chromosomes. If there is an abnormal chromosome number, parents must decide whether to carry the child to term or whether to abort the fetus. There is no cure (at least yet) for chromosomal abnormalities. Lesson 4.1: Heart Structure Understandings 1. The human heart is a four- chambered muscular pump designed to provide the force needed to transport blood through all the tissues of the body. 2. The heart s pulmonary circuit pumps blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen, while the systemic circuit pumps oxygenated blood out to the tissues of the body. 3. The structure of blood vessels relates to their overall function. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Identify the main structures of the heart and describe their functions. Outline the path of the major blood vessels to and from the heart. Recognize that heart valves function to keep blood moving in the proper direction. Recognize that arteries move blood away from the heart and veins carry blood back to the heart. Compare the structure and function of arteries and veins. Aorta Aortic Valve The large arterial trunk that carries blood from the heart to be distributed by branch arteries through the body. The semilunar valve separating the aorta from the left ventricle that prevents blood from flowing back into the left ventricle.

23 Artery Any of the tubular branching muscular and elastic- walled vessels that carry blood from the heart through the body. Atrium An anatomical cavity or passage; especially a chamber of the heart that receives blood from the veins and forces it into a ventricle or ventricles. Cardiovascular The transport system of the body responsible for carrying oxygen and nutrients to the body and System carrying away carbon dioxide and other wastes; composed of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. Cell The smallest structural unit of living matter capable of functioning independently. Inferior Vena Cava A vein that is the largest vein in the human body and returns blood to the right atrium of the heart from bodily parts below the diaphragm. Mitral Valve A valve in the heart that guards the opening between the left atrium and the left ventricle; prevents the blood in the ventricle from returning to the atrium. Alternative name is bicuspid valve. Pulmonary Circulation The passage of venous blood from the right atrium of the heart through the right ventricle and pulmonary arteries to the lungs where it is oxygenated and its return via the pulmonary veins to enter the left atrium and participate in systemic circulation. Superior Vena Cava A vein that is the second largest vein in the human body and returns blood to the right atrium of the heart from the upper half of the body. Systemic Circulation The branch of the circulatory system that supplies all body organs and then returns oxygen- poor blood to the right atrium via the veins. Tissue An integrated group of cells with a common function, structure, or both. Tricuspid Valve A valve that is situated at the opening of the right atrium of the heart into the right ventricle and that resembles the mitral valve in structure but consists of three triangular membranous flaps. Valve Vein A body structure that temporarily closes a passage or orifice, or permits movement of fluid in only one direction. 2.2 Heart Anatomy Study Guide by Hisrich 2.2 Heart Anatomy Study Guide by Hisrich A vessel that returns blood to the heart. 2.2.a. Why is the heart considered a pump? 2.2.a. Why is the heart considered a pump? Pumps move fluids using pressure Pumps move fluids using pressure The heart is a pump because it moves a fluid (blood) The heart is a pump becauseofit ventricles). moves a fluid (blood) using pressure (contractions The heart using pressure (contractions of ventricles). The heart powers the whole cardiovascular system. powers the whole cardiovascular system. 2.2.b. What are the structures that make up the human heart? 2.2.b. What are the structures that make up the human heart? Category Characteristics Includes Category Characteristics Includes chambers open, like rooms hold blood right and left atrium and right and left ventricles chambers open, like rooms hold blood right and left atrium and right and left ventricles valves flaps, like doors let blood move one way tricuspid, bicuspid (mitral), aortic & pulmonary valves flaps, like doors let blood move one way tricuspid, bicuspid (mitral), aortic & pulmonary veins bring blood to heart tubes, like halls superior & inferior vena cavas & pulmonary veins veins bring blood to heart tubes, like halls superior & inferior vena cavas & pulmonary veins arteries carry blood from heart tubes, like halls pulmonary arteries, aorta arteries carry blood from heart tubes, like halls pulmonary arteries, aorta 2.2.c. How are these structures organized? 2.2.c. How are these structures organized?

24 2.2.c. How are these structures organized? 2.2.d. What is the pathway blood takes as it passes through the heart? right atriumtricuspid valveright ventriclepulmonary valvepulmonary arterieslungs for oxygenpulmonary veinsleft atriumbicuspid (mitral) valveleft ventricleaortic valveaortaarteries all over bodyarteriolescapillaries (to drop off oxygen, nutrient & hormones & pick up waste & CO 2 )venulesveinsvena cavasright atrium 2.2.e. What is meant by the term tissue? A tissue is a group of cells that work together to do something. Tissues make up organs, such as blood vessels and the heart. People who study tissues & make slides from them are called histologists ( one who studies tissues ) 2.2.f. What are the different types of cardiac tissue and how do they differ? Tissue Name Literal Meaning What it Does myocardium muscle heart makes up thick muscle layer endocardium inside heart forms inner surface of chambers pericardium on heart sac that surrounds the heart

25 2.2.g. How do principles of engineering apply to heart structure and function? The heart is a pump, just like artificial pumps created by engineers. Biomedical Engineers create things like artificial heart valves & pacemakers to help treat heart problems. 2.4.a What is the general composition of human blood? Erythrocytes ( red cells ) Leukocytes ( white cells ) Thrombocytes ( clotting cells ) Plasma ( former ) No nucleus, made in bone marrow by stem cells Liquid that carries all cells, as well as hormones, nutrients, salts, etc 2.4.b. Why is blood classified as a tissue? Tissues are groups of cells that perform a similar function and have a common origin. Blood transports materials throughout the body and is all made in the bone marrow. The study of tissues is Histology ( tissue study ) and the person who makes slides is a Histology Technician. The removal of tissues from the body is called a Biopsy. 2.4.c What are the characteristics and function of red blood cells? 7-8 µm wide Flat for increased S.A. Carry oxygen, using hemoglobin ( blood balls ) protein Survive ~ 4 months

26 2.4.d. What are the characteristics and functions of white blood cells? µm wide Fight diseases Part of immune system A high count can indicate infection 2.4.e. What are the characteristics and function of platelets? Flat and sticky Help blood clot Impaired by Aspirin 2.4.f. In what ways does blood directly relate to other human body tissues and systems? Respiratory System Immune System Digestive System Urinary System Endocrine Picks up oxygen and drops off carbon dioxide at the alveoli Circulates white blood cells and antibodies to fight disease Picks up nutrients from the small intestine and carries them to all other body tissues Carries cellular waste from all the body s tissues to the kidneys, where it is filtered out and removed in the urine. Picks up hormones from all the endocrine organs and carries them to all other tissues 2.4.g. Why are most cells so small? Cells must be small enough that materials coming IN can absorb all the way IN 1. Oxygen 2. Nutrients 3. Water and materials going OUT 4. Carbon dioxide 5. Cellular waste can escape If cells get TOO BIG they ll either starve to death or drown in their own waste Cells need to MAXIMIZE their surface area in relation to their volume (red blood cells do this by being somewhat flat) In our experiment, the agar cubes represented cells and the sodium hydroxide represented nutrients, oxygen and water. The small cells were penetrated more quickly and effectively than the large cells.

27 Lesson 4.2: The Heart at Work Understandings 1. Heart rate, EKG, and blood pressure measurements are indicators of a person s overall cardiac health. 2. Experiments are designed to find answers to testable questions. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Recognize that the heartbeat is caused by the contraction of muscle cells and results in the movement of blood from the heart to the arteries and the rest of the body. Recognize that heart rate is the number of heart contractions per unit of time, usually per minute. Recognize that blood pressure is a measure of the force put on the vascular walls by the blood as it is pushed by the cardiac muscles through the blood vessels. Recognize that the electrical activity of the heart can be measured and recorded by an electrocardiogram. Describe how internal and external factors can affect heart function and can contribute to the development of heart disease. Recognize that all external variables in an experiment need to be controlled. Measure heart rate and blood pressure manually and with scientific software and probes. Design controlled experiments to test the effect of factors such as exercise or body position on heart rate and blood pressure. Analyze EKG readings and relate resultant data to heart function. Atrioventricular Node Blood Pressure Cardiology Diastole Diastolic Pressure A specialized mass of conducting cells located at the atrioventricular junction in the heart. Pressure exerted by the blood upon the walls of the blood vessels, especially arteries, usually measured by means of a sphygmomanometer and expressed in mmhg. Normal, 120/80. The study of the heart and its action and diseases. The stage of the heart cycle in which the heart muscle is relaxed, allowing the chambers to fill with blood. Bottom number in fraction. Blood pressure that remains between heart contractions. Electrocardiogram (EKG) A measurement of heart electrical activity. Heart Rate Hypertension Pacemaker Pulse Sinoatrial Node Sphygmomanometer Systole Systolic Pressure A measure of cardiac activity usually expressed as the number of beats per minute. An abnormally high blood pressure, 140/90 mmhg consistently. An electrical device for stimulating or steadying the heartbeat or reestablishing the rhythm of an arrested heart. The rhythmic expansion and recoil of arteries resulting from heart contraction; can be felt from the outside of the body. Normal is bpm and normal rhythm. A small mass of tissue that is made up of Purkinje fibers, ganglion cells, and nerve fibers, that is embedded in the musculature of the right atrium, and that originates the impulses stimulating the heartbeat - - called also S- A node, sinus node. An instrument for measuring blood pressure and especially arterial blood pressure. The stage of the heart cycle in which the heart muscle contracts and the chambers pump blood. The pressure generated by the left ventricle during systole. 2.3.a. In what ways can technology be used to collect and analyze cardiovascular data? Thing measured Tool used Used how Blood pressure Sphygmomanometer pulse measurer Determines systolic and diastolic arterial pressure Heart rate Timer Used to find beats during 10 seconds (then multiply by 6 for bpm) Electricity within heart EKG Electrodes on skin pick up current and show graphically

28 2.3.e. What is an EKG? 2.3.f. How can an EKG be used in the diagnosis and treatment of heart disease? EKGs, or electrocardiographs ( electricity heart pictures ) measure the heart s electrical activity and display it in the form of a picture: P wavesignal passes from SA node (sinoatrial node) to AV node (atrioventricular node), moving across atria QRS intervalsignal passes from AV node through Purkinje fibers & the ventricles contract T wavethe ventricles repolarize & the heart is relaxed Path of the Electrical signal: SA node à AV node à AV bundle à Bundle fibers à Purkinje fibers EKGs are examined for missing, extra or malformed waves. EKGs are taken when heart problems are suspected and can be used in cardiology ( the study of the heart ) to diagnose heart attacks, lack of blood flow to the heart, arrhythmia ( no rhythm ), lack of forcefulness of heart muscle, muscle parts that are too thick or heart parts that are too big, birth defects of the heart, heart valve diseases. 2.3.b. What factors can influence heart rate? Lower heart rate Short-term method Sleeping or relaxing Hydrating yourself Long term method Exercise Reducing stress Eating fruits, vegetables, nuts, beans & fish Raise heart rate Short-term method Exercising or other rapid movements Being scared or very stressed briefly Drinking caffeine or alcohol Long term method Being out of shape Increasing stress ***Factors that influence heart rate can be determined by creating a hypothesis (testable prediction) and then testing it out, like we did in class. Lesson 4.3: Heart Dysfunction Understandings 1. Cholesterol is a lipid that is necessary for the proper functioning of cells and for maintaining a healthy body. 2. The measurement of the HDL and LDL complexes may indicate a person s risk for heart disease. 3. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) analysis can be used to diagnose genetic disease and disorders. 4. The human heart pumps blood around the body, and the efficiency of this pump is affected by the rate at which blood can move through the vessels. 5. Experiments are designed to find answers to testable questions. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Recognize that cholesterol is transported in the blood by protein complexes called high density lipoprotein (HDL) and low density lipoprotein (LDL).

29 Describe how restriction enzymes and gel electrophoresis can be used to analyze genetic information. Describe how cholesterol buildup can impact blood flow through arteries. Compare and contrast the role of HDL and LDL in the body and how each relates to health. Use proper laboratory techniques to separate DNA fragments by gel electrophoresis. Analyze the results of the gel electrophoresis to correctly diagnose the presence of the familial hypercholesterolemia mutation. Generate ideas as a team to solve a problem. Design a controlled experiment to demonstrate how cholesterol plaques impact flow rate in blood vessels. Angiogram Angioplasty Coronary Bypass Heart Attack The radiographic visualization of blood vessels after the injection of radiopaque substance. Surgical repair or recanalization of a blood vessel. A surgical bypass operation performed to shunt blood around an obstruction in a coronary artery that involves grafting one end of a vein removed from another part of the body into the aorta and the other end into the coronary artery beyond the obstructed area to allow for increased blood flow. An acute episode of heart disease marked by death or damage of heart muscle due to insufficient blood supply to the heart muscle usually as a result of coronary thrombosis or a coronary occlusion and that is characterized especially by chest pain. Heart Disease An abnormal organic condition of the heart or of circulation. Metabolic Syndrome Risk Factor Stenting Stroke A syndrome marked by the presence of usually three or more of a group of factors (as high blood pressure, abdominal obesity, high triglyceride levels, low HDL levels, and high fasting levels of blood sugar) that are linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease and Type 2 diabetes. Something which increases risk or susceptibility. A surgical procedure or operation for inserting a stent, a mold to keep a passageway open, into an anatomical vessel. Sudden loss of consciousness, sensation, and voluntary motion caused by rupture or obstruction (as by a clot) of a blood vessel of the brain. 5.1.a. Are all fats the same? All fats have hydrophilic heads and one or more hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains). They are primarily carbon chains, coated in hydrogen atoms, and have some oxygen atoms in the head. However, there are different kinds of fats. 5.1.b. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats? Unsaturated Fats (or Fatty Acids) Both Saturated Fats (or Fatty Acids) Healthier From fish, plant oils, seeds and nuts Usually liquids 1+ double bonds between the C atoms (less H atoms attached) Necessary for health Can be monounsaturated (one double bond) or polyunsaturated (multiple double bonds) Not polymers ( many parts ) (no repeating building block) Triglycerides are the most common form consumed by humans Intake should be limited Unhealthy Mostly from animal sources Usually solids All single bonds between carbon atoms (maximum # of H atoms attached) Not necessary for health (ideal amount = zero)

30 5.1.c. Why unsaturated fats are considered healthier than saturated ones? Unsaturated Fats (or Fatty Acids) Fewer calories Lower LDL ( bad cholesterol ) levels Lessen risk of heart disease Liquids, don t link up and clog arteries Saturated Fats (or Fatty Acids) More calories Raise LDL ( bad cholesterol ) levels Raise risk of heart disease Solids that stick to each other in the bloodstream, creates plaque that clogs arteries Omega-3 fatty acids are a type of polyunsaturated fat. They are essential fatty acids and the body cannot make them. Trans fats are a man-made saturated fat and are the worst kind for the heart s health 5.1.d. What is cholesterol? Cholesterol is a lipid made in the liver of animals. It helps form cell membranes & is found in all tissues, but especially nervous and fat tissue. It protects the skin and helps nerve cells function. It also helps detoxify the blood. 5.1.e. Why are so many foods advertised as non-fat and cholesterol-free? Humans do not need to consume cholesterol to be healthy. The human liver makes it. Most humans take in too much cholesterol from their food, putting the health of their hearts at risk. 5.1.f. What are LDL and HDL? LDL Both HDL Low Density Lipoprotein Carry cholesterol through blood to all tissues if there s too much it just stays in the blood Raises risk of heart disease Leads to blood vessel blockages white blood cells try to digest LDL & convert it to a toxic form. White blood cells create inflammation & that draws more cells & plaque Part lipid, part protein Carry cholesterol High Density Lipoprotein Pick up cholesterol in the bloodstream and take it to the liver for removal from the body Lowers risk of heart disease Reduces blood vessel blockages Statin medication can be taken to lower cholesterol levels. 5.1.h. How are LDL, HDL, and cholesterol related to heart disease? Heart disease is the #1 killer of Americans, killing over ½ million Americans per year. HDL, LDL & total cholesterol levels are highly correlated with risk of heart disease and heart attack. Keeping levels healthy is a great way to protect the cardiovascular system.

31 system. Here are facts from the CDC*: 71 million American adults (33.5%) have high LDL, or bad, cholesterol People with high total cholesterol have approximately twice the risk of heart disease as people with optimal levels * 5.2.a. How do crime scene investigators get enough DNA evidence from a single drop of blood? The put the DNA through an amplification process called PCR. 5.2.b. What is PCR? PCR stands for polymerase chain reaction and is a way to take a small amount of DNA and amplify it to create a much larger sample size (that can then be analyzed). PCR amplifies the DNA exponentially. 5.2.c. How is DNA analyzed without sequencing it? DNA can be analyzed through gel electrophoresis. Electrophoresis allows the comparison of an unknown piece of DNA to a known gene. The more the pieces of DNA match up, the more similar the DNA sequences. DNA from a person with a disease (like familial hypercholesterolemia) can be compared to someone who wants to know whether (s)he has that disorder. Ways in which our genes vary are called polymorphisms ( many ( many forms ) and are the ways in in which one one person s DNA DNA is compared is to another s. Electrophoresis shows whether 2 people 2 have have the the SAME form of a particular gene or or a a DIFFERENT form. form. 5.2.d. What does PCR do and how does it work? PCR is a way to amplify DNA to make a much larger sample. Here are the steps: 1) Denature the DNA to separate the strands 2) Left and right primers pair to complementary sequences 3) Taq polymerase (an enzyme that catalyzes formation of DNA) is attaches to the priming sites and extend (synthesize) a new DNA strand 4) Steps repeat until there are billions of copies

32 5.2.e. Can genetic diseases or disorders be diagnosed using a small blood or saliva sample from a patient? Yes. The DNA can be amplified and then run through electrophoresis. Familial Hypercholesterolemia ( high cholesterol in the blood ) is a dominant autosomal genetic disorder is the result of a mutation in DNA that is passed from parents to their offspring. The disease typically occurs when a person inherits a dominant allele from one parent, giving him a heterozygous ( full of different things joined together ) genotype (Hh). On very RARE occasions, the person has TWO affected parents and inherits the mutation from BOTH of them, giving him a homozygous ( full of same things joined together ) dominant genotype (HH). Either will result in familial hypercholesterolemia, but a homozygous dominant genotype makes the condition far worse. The phenotype ( showing type ) of a person with familial hypercholesterolemia is that LDL cholesterol (generally called bad cholesterol builds up in the bloodstream, leading to very high cholesterol levels in the blood and putting the person at high risk for a heart attack. 5.2.f. Why are DNA tests on television programs and movies shown as patterns of stripes or bands on film or in gels? 5.2.g. What is gel electrophoresis and how are the results interpreted? The bands shown on TV are gel electrophoresis results. Gel electrophoresis is used to compare unknown DNA to known DNA. The steps are: 1) Amplify the DNA sample 2) Use restriction endonuclease to cut the DNA into pieces 3) Make an agarose gel (source is seaweed) that the DNA can travel across in a linear (straight) line 4) Load the DNA samples into the wells in the agarose gel and put the wells in the negative end of the electrophoresis apparatus 5) Turn on the electrophoresis apparatus and let it run about 30 minutes DNA will travel toward the + electrode because of its charge 6) Stain the agarose gel to get the DNA to appear 7) Compare the lanes of DNA To interpret results, geneticists look at which RFLPs (lines) match between lanes. Where lines match, the DNA strand is the same length and that means the DNA is the same. Where lines DO NOT match up, there s a difference in the DNA strand. For example, in the gel above the RFLPs in lanes 3-5 match, showing similar DNA and the RFLPs in lanes 6-9 match, showing similar DNA. The most disimilar DNA is in lane 2 & appears to be unrelated to the rest. Lane 1 is the KNOWN reference DNA, used to determine the number of base pairs in each RFLP. Lesson 4.4: Heart Intervention Understandings 1. A blocked coronary artery can lead to tissue death causing a myocardial infarction, or heart attack. 2. Risk factors such as genetics, poor diet, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, diabetes, and smoking increase a person s risk of developing heart disease.

33 Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Describe the function of an angiogram in diagnosing blocked vessels. Recognize that blocked blood vessels can be treated surgically using procedures that tunnel through or around the areas that disrupt normal blood flow. Explain how lifestyle changes as well as medication or medical treatment may help decrease heart disease risk. Demonstrate a technique used to open a blocked vessel. Analyze medical data and brainstorm causes of death linked to the cardiovascular system. Analyze heart disease risk and design a risk reduction program. Lesson 5.1: Infection Understandings 26. Infectious diseases are caused by infectious agents and are transmitted in a variety of manners. 27. Aseptic technique assures that contaminants are not introduced into a specimen and that infectious agents are not spread to people or laboratory surfaces. You try and cover the petri plate, you tie your hair back, wear PPE, no food or drink, use bleach, wash hands before and after working with the sample. 28. Bacteria are characterized by their shape, colony morphology, metabolism, and reaction to the Gram stain. 29. The specific structures of the immune system function to protect the human body against foreign invaders. Knowledge and Skills It is expected that students will: Describe the mode of transmission and mode of reproduction of various infectious agents. Describe the prevention of and treatment for various infectious agents. Identify the basic structures of a bacterial cell. Describe how the immune system responds when an antigen enters the body. Demonstrate the transmission of a simulated infectious agent. Compare and contrast the biology and pathology of various infectious agents. Use proper aseptic technique to isolate bacterial colonies. Perform a gross examination of bacterial colonies to differentiate an unknown bacterial sample. Use proper Gram staining and microscope techniques to stain, observe, and classify bacteria. Chemically examine and identify unknown bacteria. Antibody Aseptic Technique Bacillus Bacteria B Lymphocyte (B Cell) Coccus Contagious Fungus Gram Stain Helminth Immunity An antigen- binding immunoglobulin, produced by B cells, that functions as the effector in an immune response. A procedure performed under sterile conditions. A cylindrical or rod- shaped bacterium. Single- celled microorganisms that are often aggregated into colonies or motile by means of flagella, typically live in soil, water, organic matter, or the bodies of plants and animals, are usually autotrophic, saprophytic, or parasitic in nutrition, and are noted for their biochemical effects and pathogenicity. A type of lymphocyte that develops in the bone marrow and later produces antibodies. A spherical bacterium. Communicable by contact. Saprophytic and parasitic spore- producing eukaryotic organisms that lack chlorophyll and include molds, rusts, mildews, smuts, mushrooms, and yeasts. A method for the differential staining of bacteria that involves fixing the bacterial cells to a slide and staining with crystal violet and iodine, then washing with alcohol, and counterstaining with safranin. Results in gram- positive bacteria retaining the purple dye and gram- negative organisms having it decolorized so that the red counterstain shows up. A parasitic worm (as a tapeworm, liver fluke, ascarid, or leech). A condition of being able to resist a particular disease, especially through preventing development of a pathogenic microorganism or by counteracting the effects of its products.

34 Infection Microbiology Phagocyte Prion Protozoan Spirillum T Lymphocyte (T Cells) Transmission Virus 6.1.a. What are bacteria? The state produced by the establishment of an infective agent in or on a suitable host. A branch of biology dealing especially with microscopic forms of life (as bacteria, protozoans, viruses, and fungi). A cell (as a white blood cell) that engulfs and consumes foreign material (as microorganisms) and debris. Any of various infectious proteins that are abnormal forms of normal cellular proteins, that proliferate by inducing the normal protein to convert to the abnormal form, and that in mammals include pathogenic forms. Any protist of the phylum or subkingdom Protozoa. A spiral- shaped bacterium. A type of lymphocyte responsible for cell- mediated immunity that differentiates under the influence of the thymus. The way a microbial organism moves from one host to another. Any of a large group of submicroscopic infective agents that typically contain a protein coat surrounding an RNA or DNA core of genetic material but no semipermeable membrane, that are capable of growth and multiplication only in living cells, and that cause various important diseases in humans, animals, or plants. 6.1 Bacteria Study Guide by Hisrich Bacteria are single-celled living organisms that are found all around us (and in us). They don t have organelles or a nucleus, the way animal cells do. 6.1.b. How do bacteria differ from one another? 6.1.f. How do scientists and doctors tell one bacteria from another? Bacteria can be sorted into categories based on morphology ( study of shape ) or gram staining results (red or dark blue/purple). Bacteria come in three different shapes bacillus ( rods ), spirilla ( spirals ) & cocci ( round or berry-shaped ) and either exist as single cells, in pairs (diplo-), in clumps (staphylo-) or in strings (strepto-). These are some examples of what various bacteria look like under a microscope. Scientists look for 3 main things to tell bacteria apart: 1) Color red or blue/purple (determined by Gram staining) 2) Shape round, rod-shaped or spiral 3) Colony type single, paired, clumped or strings

35 6.1.c. Do all bacteria cause disease? About 99% of bacteria fall into the categories of benign (nonharmful) or even beneficial. Less than 1% of all bacteria varieties are pathogenic ( disease-causing ). An example of beneficial bacteria are lactobacillus (found in dairy products help with digestion). In fact, bacteria are so important to digestion that there are about 100 trillion of them in our guts (more bacteria cells than there are human cells in our WHOLE body!) We would DIE without bacteria & in fact can become ill if they are killed off (for example, by antibiotics). 6.1.d. What is the size of bacteria compared to the size of human cell? Bacteria cells are much smaller than human cells. There are about 70 trillion HUMAN cells in our bodies, but even MORE BACTERIAL cells (more than 100 trillion), so they are quite small. The diagram shown to the right shows that a typical bacillus bacteria is about ¼ the size of a red blood cell. And viruses are much smaller still. 6.1.e. If bacteria are living cells, how do they reproduce? Bacteria typically reproduce asexually ( without sex ), where one cell doubles its DNA and then splits into 2. This process is also called binary fission ( one breaking into 2). The drawback of binary fission is that it doesn t create any genetic diversity at all (the way sex does). Therefore, in order to create genetic diversity, one of 3 things can happen: 1) Conjugation: one bacterium gives another bacteria some of its genetic material by squirting it through a protein tube 2) Transformation: a bacterium takes up genetic material from the environment (often from dead cells) 3) Transduction: viruses called bacteriophages ( bacteria eaters ) insert their own genomes into the bacterium & the bacteria then replicate the viruses. 6.1.g. How are bacterial infections treated? 6.1.h. Can the same treatment be used for all bacterial infections? Bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics ( against life ) unless they are antibiotic-resistant or there are no antibiotics available to treat them. Antibiotics are chemicals that attack/kill particular bacteria and are usually derived from other bacteria (who use them as a defense) or from organisms like mold (that s where penicillin was discovered. Some antibiotics are considered broad spectrum and can be used against many different bacteria (i.e. penicillin). Others are narrow spectrum and are effective against only a couple bacteria. An example is Azithromycin, used to treat gonorrhea. 6.1.i. What is antibiotic resistance, and why is it a major health problem today? Antibiotic resistance is when bacteria develop immunity to the antibiotic that would usually attack them. It is due to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics. A few major causes exist: 1) Prescription of unnecessary antibiotics (say for a viral infection) 2) Failure to finish a dose of antibiotics 3) The use of antibiotics in livestock (the majority