Objectives. 1. Understand what is meant by aggression in sport 2. Understand the different theories used to

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2 Aggression in sport

3 Objectives 1. Understand what is meant by aggression in sport 2. Understand the different theories used to explain aggressive behaviour 3. Describe how coaches/officials/players might try to control aggressive behaviour

4 Berkowitz (1993) summarised that we need two factors present to classify a behaviour as showing aggression; 1. The behaviour must be directed at another human being with the goal of causing some form of physical harm 2. The behaviour must show a reasonable expectation that the attempt to inflict harm will be successful.

5 Specific Types of Aggression Hostile aggression intention to harm outside the rules. Instrumental aggression intent to harm as a means to a goal (e.g. Hard tackle to frighten your opponent) Channelled aggression feelings of aggression that are diverted into useful, positive actions Assertive behaviour use of physical force that is within the rules or ethics of a sport

6 hostile aggression For an individual to be showing hostile aggression their primary aim is to cause injury to the other human being. Their intentis on causing pain and suffering. Their intentis on causing pain and suffering. Hostile aggressors find reinforcement to their behaviour in the pain, suffering and injuries caused.

7 A good example of hostile aggression A good example of hostile aggression is a bowler throwing a bouncer to deliberately shake up the concentration of a batsman. Some cricketers have deliberately done this in the past with the intent towards injury. Give 4 examples of hostile aggression

8 instrumental aggression Sometimes aggressive behaviour in sports is rewarded with success. For athletes driven by instrumental aggression their goal is the realisation of an external goal; the intent to hurt in order to achieve money, praise or victory.

9 example Boxing and events such as the UFC place a reward on aggression in terms of victory in the ring or financial success. For example, the Rugby player who makes an illegal tackle on an opponent in order to discourage him/her from running with the ball. Hurting an opponent might increase the players chance of victory. Provide 4 examples

10 Theories of Aggression 1. Catharsis hypothesis 2. Frustration-aggression hypothesis 3. Social learning theory 4. Berkowitz s reformulation

11 The Instinct theory The Instinct theory, which suggests that aggressive behaviour is an innate characteristic of all individuals. We are born with an aggressive instinct that makes aggressive behaviour inevitable. Have you felt intense rage at times? Wanted to do harm?

12 Instinct theory suggests that we an innate fighting instinct that has developed through evolution, based on the idea of territory, and territorial domination. It also suggests that the instinct to be aggressive continues to build up until it is released through an aggressive act the idea of letting off steam.

13 This suggests that performers who participate in the aggressive sports (such as Rugby) have the most opportunities to be aggressive. They should expend all their aggressive energy (catharsis) during the game, and therefore be the calmest and least aggressive off the field. Rugby can thus be seen as a calming influence.

14 The frustration-aggression hypothesis This suggests that frustration always leads to aggression, and that aggression always stems from frustration. If the Rugby player tries to achieve a goal/target and his opponent stops them then the player will develop frustration, leading to more aggression. The idea that frustration leads to aggression makes sense, and it fits into many of our observations about Rugby.

15 However, there are far more examples where Rugby players do not commit aggressive acts. Their responses involve non-aggressive action, or simply despair. Furthermore, many aggressivebehaviours occur withoutbeing due to frustration. This suggests that the frustration-aggression relationship may not be as inevitable as the hypothesis suggests and most current researchers do not accept the linking role of aggressive drive as inevitable.

16 Compare how Berkowitz's Reformulated Frustration Aggression Theory and Bandura s Social Learning Theory explain aggression in sport.

17 Berkowitz's Reformulated Frustration Aggression Theory originally frustration aggression theory failedto account for justified and unjustified frustration and environmental cues to aggressionit needed some adjustment become a justifiable hypothesis Berkowitz's (1993) reformulation of the theory pays considerations to the observation that frustration does not assuredly lead on to aggressive behaviourand proposed that frustration creates a readiness for aggression

18 . To lead to aggression certain stimuli are required for the behaviour to occur. In the animal world an example would be the bull fighter using a red flag to enrage a bull. In the sporting world it could be the sledging from the wicket keeperto build up the batsman's level of frustration in cricket in the hope that he takes a wild, angry swing at the ball and misses as the ball smashes into the stumps- Howzat!

19 Berkowitz summarised that a large number of factors and eventscan influence the strength of impulse to commit acts of aggression.

20 Examples of these instigating factors include: 1. Events having aggressive meaning to the athlete 2. Objects having an aggression meaning to the athlete 3. Lowered restraint towards aggression as a result of instances 4. Negative effect 5. An aggressive disposition 6. High levels of arousal Associationwith previous gratifications from aggression (Such as positive coach response towards previous aggressive behaviours)

21 Bandura's Social Learning Theory Bandura's Social Learning Theory. Bandura (1977) believed that behaviours are learnt as a result of environmental factors in the form of observational learning. As human's we consider the relationship between our actions and subsequent consequences through a procedure of information processing.

22 Controlling Aggression Competition Outcome of a contest Point spread Home vs away matches Player attribution Physical contact Referees Coaches and parents Observing aggressive behaviour

23 definitions Dictionary Definition: An unprovoked attack, any offensive activity or practice, a hostile or destructive mental attitude or behaviour Sport Definition: Behaviour that harms another human being, that is intentional, that is outside the laws of the game or activity