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1 Chapter 1 : Classical and Operant Conditioning - Behaviorist Theories Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. Check new design of our homepage! Difference Between Operant and Classical Conditioning The most obvious point of difference between operant and classical conditioning revolves around when the stimulus is applied, before or after the response. But there do exist other points too that need to be taken into consideration. PsycholoGenie Staff Last Updated: Feb 24, What is Learning? In psychology, learning is the process that brings about a behavioral change resulting from experience. In behavioral psychology, we often come across two theories: Both theories stress on learning; not the learning that you associate with a classroom, but learning as defined in psychology. Both shed light on various facets of human and non-human behavior, and seek to answer how humans and non-humans react to stimuli. Both have been extensively used to treat phobias, and at times, for the treatment of depression and anxiety. Despite these similarities, the two are different at many levels In order to study this unusual behavior, Pavlov carried out his now-famous experiment, and eventually put forth empirical evidence of classical conditioning. In, the duo of John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner carried out the Little Albert experiment, to prove that classical conditioning applied to humans as well. Operant conditioning was discovered by Polish neurophysiologist Jerzy Konorski. Back then, he called it type II conditioned reflexes or secondary conditioned reflexes. That explains why he is called the Father of Operant Conditioning. Most Popular Experiments In dogs, the tendency to salivate when they see food is a hard-wired reflex. In other words, salivation is the unconditioned response to food, which is unconditioned stimulus. He introduced a neutral stimulus to the environment in the form of a bell. Whenever the dog was served food, Pavlov would ring a bell. Eventually, the dog began to associate the bell with food, such that every time he heard the bell, he started to salivate; even when there was no food around. Skinner carried out experiments on rats. He would place them in the Skinner Box, which was equipped with a lever, stimulus light, and a feeding tube. The lever was connected to the feeding tube in such a manner, that whenever the rat would press the lever, it would release food. Eventually, from experience, the rat learned to associate the lever with food. Also, the reinforcement part, i. Soon enough, the rat learned this difference, and began pressing the lever on fewer occasions when the light was not on. Theoretical Comparison Classical conditioning pairs a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, so the subject learns to associate two different stimuli. Operant conditioning, on the other hand, relies on reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease behavior. In the Skinner Box experiment, the availability of food was the reinforcement, while the act of pressing the lever, the desired consequence. In classical conditioning, an existing behavior is shaped by associating it with a new stimulus. In contrast, in operant conditioning, the likelihood of a new desired behavior is increased or decreased by applying reinforcing stimulus, which is like an unconditioned stimulus. In classical conditioning, the subject associates an involuntary response and a stimulus. As opposed to this, in operant conditioning, the subject associates a voluntary behavior and a consequence. In classical conditioning, the experiences from which the subject learns occur before a response. In operant conditioning, on the other hand, the experiences from which the subject learns occur after a response. There is more to operant conditioning. For instance, reinforcement after the behavior increases the behavior, while punishment after the behavior decreases it. Within reinforcement, there are two types: Day-to-day Examples When you leave for office early, you realize that there is less traffic. So you decide to leave early every day to avoid heavy traffic, which, in this case, is undesired consequence. In a school, when the student who tops the class is praised by the teacher, it prompts all students to work hard. In this case, praise is the desired consequence. In the first case, undesired consequence is removed, so it is negative reinforcement. In the second case, desired consequence is added, so it is positive reinforcement. Besides these, there is the case of punishment. An apt example will be when a child is grounded for not performing well in a test, so he makes it a point to work hard and perform well in the next test. As for classical conditioning, one of the best examples will be static electricity shock. When you touch a door handle to open the door, you get an Page 1

2 electric shock. You move your hand back in a split second; courtesy, automatic reflex. When this happens a couple of time, you start associating the door handle with static electricity, and out of fear that you might get a shock again, you show reluctance to directly touch the handle. Such behavioral theories play an important role in the life of animals, as they do in our lives. In dog training, for instance, trainers resort to operant conditioning and classical conditioning to inculcate good behavior such as obedience and potty training, and modify bad behavior such sitting on the couch, boisterousness, etc. Page 2

3 Chapter 2 : Classical Conditioning The Most Basic Type of Associative Learning Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a major influence on the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. These forms of conditioning learning have both similarities and differences. Their main purpose is same, which is acquiring new behavior. But the process of how that is acquired is quite different. Differences between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning is a learning process first discovered by the Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov in the early s Operant Conditioning is the term coined by B. The theory of Classical Conditioning deals with the learning process leading us to gain a new behavior via the process of association. Operant conditioning is a form of learning which explains the relation of behaviors on certain rewards and consequences. Internal mental thoughts and brain mechanisms play a huge role in associative learning. The study of the theory only deals with expressible behaviors and not any internal mental thoughts and brain mechanisms. Classical Conditioning works by pairing involuntary response with stimulus. After which, unconditioned response becomes conditioned response. Operant Conditioning works by applying two major concepts, Reinforcements and Punishments, after the behavior is executed, which causes the rate of behavior to increase or decrease. Similarities Along with the differences there are also various similarities between these two forms of conditioning learning. The major similarity lies in its application. Both these conditioning learning techniques are used to teach a new behavior to an organism. Despite different techniques, the major goal remains the same. Both of these techniques have certain limitations when applying it in real life. These techniques are also applied unknowingly. For instance, a teacher punishing a student is an example of operant conditioning. On the other hand, we call our pets with a certain signal before we treat them with food. The dog then associates the timing of food with the signal, which is an example of classical conditioning. Page 3

4 Chapter 3 : Classical vs Operant Conditioning - Psychestudy Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell). It also refers to the learning process that results from this pairing, through which the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a. Learning Theory and Learning Theory "Learning Theory" is a discipline of psychology that attempts to explain how an organism learns. It consists of many different theories of learning, including instincts, social facilitation, observation, formal teaching, memory, mimicry, and classical and operant conditioning. It is these last two that are of most interest to animal trainers. Why should animal trainers be bothered with learning the theory behind how their animals learn? Many excellent trainers have no formal schooling or organized understanding of how their training is effective or how their charges work. But training is both an art and a science. So trainers are learning the theory of learning theory! The gist of the experiment is this: Pavlov presented dogs with food, and measured their salivary response how much they drooled. Then he began ringing a bell just before presenting the food. At first, the dogs did not begin salivating until the food was presented. After a while, however, the dogs began to salivate when the sound of the bell was presented. They learned to associate the sound of the bell with the presentation of the food. As far as their immediate physiological responses were concerned, the sound of the bell became equivalent to the presentation of the food. Classical conditioning is used by trainers for two purposes: To condition train autonomic responses, such as the drooling, producing adrenaline, or reducing adrenaline calming without using the stimuli that would naturally create such a response; and, to create an association between a stimulus that normally would not have any effect on the animal and a stimulus that would. Stimuli that animals react to without training are called primary or unconditioned stimuli US. They include food, pain, and other "hardwired" or "instinctive" stimuli. Animals do not have to learn to react to an electric shock, for example. Stimuli that animals react to only after learning about them are called secondary or conditioned stimuli CS. These are stimuli that have been associated with a primary stimulus. After its sound was associated with the presentation of food, it became a conditioned stimulus. If a warning buzzer is associated with the shock, the animals will learn to fear it. Secondary stimuli are things that the trainee has to learn to like or dislike. Examples include school grades and money. A slip of paper with an "A" or an "F" written on it has no meaning to a person who has never learned the meaning of the grade. Yet people have been known to work hard to gain this secondary reinforcer. See an interactive visual guide to CC here - and an amusing take on classical conditioning here. Application Classical conditioning is very important to animal trainers, because it is difficult to supply an animal with one of the things it naturally likes or dislikes in time for it to be an important consequence of the behavior. Some trainers call this a bridge because it bridges the time between when the animal performs a desired behavior and when it gets its reward. Marine mammal trainers use a whistle. Many other trainers use a clicker, a cricket-like box with a metal tongue that makes a click-click sound when you press it. You can classically condition a clicker by clicking it and delivering some desirable treat, many times in a row. Simply click the clicker, pause a moment, and give the dog or other animal the treat. Some clicker trainers call this "charging up the clicker". The click sound becomes a signal for an upcoming reinforcement. Read more about how to get started with clicker training here. Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning forms an association between two stimuli. Operant conditioning forms an association between a behavior and a consequence. Something Good can start or be presented; Something Good can end or be taken away; Something Bad can start or be presented; Something Bad can end or be taken away. Consequences have to be immediate, or clearly linked to the behavior. With verbal humans, we can explain the connection between the consequence and the behavior, even if they are separated in time. For the animal, the consequence has to be immediate. The way to work around this is to use a bridge see above. Anything that increases a behavior - makes it occur more frequently, makes it stronger, or makes it more likely to occur - is termed a reinforcer. Often, an animal or person will perceive "starting Something Good" or "ending Something Bad" as something worth pursuing, and they will repeat the behaviors that seem to cause these consequences. These consequences will increase the behaviors Page 4

5 that lead to them, so they are reinforcers. These are consequences the animal will work to attain, so they strengthen the behavior. Anything that decreases a behavior - makes it occur less frequently, makes it weaker, or makes it less likely to occur - is termed a punisher. Often, an animal or person will perceive "ending Something Good" or "starting Something Bad" as something worth avoiding, and they will not repeat the behaviors that seem to cause these consequences. These consequences will decrease the behaviors that lead to them, so they are punishers. Applying these terms to the Four Possible Consequences, you get: Page 5

6 Chapter 4 : Classical conditioning - Wikipedia McSweeney and Murphy: The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Operant and Classical Conditioning: An excellent book that features chapters by leading researchers, professionals, and academicians and does a pretty comprehensive treatment of operant and classical conditioning, including relevant fundamental theory, and applications including the latest techniques. By Saul McLeod, updated Classical conditioning also known as Pavlovian conditioning is learning through association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. Everything from speech to emotional responses was simply patterns of stimulus and response. Watson denied completely the existence of the mind or consciousness. Watson believed that all individual differences in behavior were due to different experiences of learning. Classical Conditioning Examples There are three stages of classical conditioning. At each stage the stimuli and responses are given special scientific terms: In this respect, no new behavior has been learned yet. This stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus NS. The NS could be a person, object, place, etc. The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. During this stage a stimulus which produces no response i. For example, a stomach virus UCS might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate CS. For classical conditioning to be effective, the conditioned stimulus should occur before the unconditioned stimulus, rather than after it, or during the same time. Thus, the conditioned stimulus acts as a type of signal or cue for the unconditioned stimulus. Often during this stage, the UCS must be associated with the CS on a number of occasions, or trials, for learning to take place. However, one trail learning can happen on certain occasions when it is not necessary for an association to be strengthened over time such as being sick after food poisoning or drinking too much alcohol. Did it also apply to humans? In a famous though ethically dubious experiment, Watson and Rayner showed that it did. Little Albert was a 9-month-old infant who was tested on his reactions to various stimuli. He was shown a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey and various masks. Albert described as "on the whole stolid and unemotional" showed no fear of any of these stimuli. However, what did startle him and cause him to be afraid was if a hammer was struck against a steel bar behind his head. The sudden loud noise would cause "little Albert to burst into tears. When Little Albert was just over 11 months old, the white rat was presented, and seconds later the hammer was struck against the steel bar. This was done seven times over the next seven weeks, and each time Little Albert burst into tears. By now little Albert only had to see the rat and he immediately showed every sign of fear. He would cry whether or not the hammer was hit against the steel bar and he would attempt to crawl away. In addition, the Watson and Rayner found that Albert developed phobias of objects which shared characteristics with the rat; including the family dog, a fur coat, some cotton wool and a Father Christmas mask! This process is known as generalization. Watson and Rayner had shown that classical conditioning could be used to create a phobia. A phobia is an irrational fear, i. Over the next few weeks and months, Little Albert was observed and ten days after conditioning his fear of the rat was much less marked. This dying out of a learned response is called extinction. However, even after a full month it was still evident, and the association could be renewed by repeating the original procedure a few times. Classical Conditioning in the Classroom The implications of classical conditioning in the classroom are less important than those of operant conditioning, but there is a still need for teachers to try to make sure that students associate positive emotional experiences with learning. If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school, then this can obviously have bad results, such as creating a school phobia. For example, if a student is bullied at school they may learn to associate the school with fear. It could also explain why some students show a particular dislike of certain subjects that continue throughout their academic career. This could happen if a student is humiliated or punished in class by a teacher. Critical Evaluation Classical conditioning emphasizes the importance of learning from the environment, and supports nurture over nature. However, it is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture, and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior. It is more Page 6

7 likely that behavior is due to an interaction between nature biology and nurture environment. A strength of classical conditioning theory is that it is scientific. For example, Pavlov showed how classical conditioning could be used to make a dog salivate to the sound of a bell. Classical conditioning is also a reductionist explanation of behavior. This is because a complex behavior is broken down into smaller stimulus-response units of behavior. Supporters of a reductionist approach say that it is scientific. Breaking complicated behaviors down to small parts means that they can be scientifically tested. However, some would argue that the reductionist view lacks validity. Thus, while reductionism is useful, it can lead to incomplete explanations. A final criticism of classical conditioning theory is that it is deterministic. This means that it does not allow for any degree of free will in the individual. Accordingly, a person has no control over the reactions they have learned from classical conditioning, such as a phobia. The deterministic approach also has important implications for psychology as a science. Scientists are interested in discovering laws which can then be used to predict events. However, by creating general laws of behavior, deterministic psychology underestimates the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny. Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, â Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3 1, pp. How to reference this article: Page 7

8 Chapter 5 : Read Now: Difference Between Operant and Classical Conditioning Developed by the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is the first type of learning wherein an organism responds to an environmental stimulus. Law of effect Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental learning, was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike â, who observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from home-made puzzle boxes. With repeated trials ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, so the cats escaped more and more quickly. In short, some consequences strengthen behavior and some consequences weaken behavior. By plotting escape time against trial number Thorndike produced the first known animal learning curves through this procedure. That is, responses are retained when they lead to a successful outcome and discarded when they do not, or when they produce aversive effects. This usually happens without being planned by any "teacher", but operant conditioning has been used by parents in teaching their children for thousands of years. Skinner[ edit ] Main article: Skinner â is referred to as the father of operant conditioning, and his work is frequently cited in connection with this topic. His book "The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis", [5] initiated his lifelong study of operant conditioning and its application to human and animal behavior. Operant conditioning, in his opinion, better described human behavior as it examined causes and effects of intentional behavior. To implement his empirical approach, Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber, or "Skinner Box", in which subjects such as pigeons and rats were isolated and could be exposed to carefully controlled stimuli. These records were the primary data that Skinner and his colleagues used to explore the effects on response rate of various reinforcement schedules. He also drew on many less formal observations of human and animal behavior. Concepts and procedures[ edit ] Origins of operant behavior: Thus one may ask why it happens in the first place. Similarly, the behavior of an individual varies from moment to moment, in such aspects as the specific motions involved, the amount of force applied, or the timing of the response. Variations that lead to reinforcement are strengthened, and if reinforcement is consistent, the behavior tends to remain stable. However, behavioral variability can itself be altered through the manipulation of certain variables. Reinforcement and Punishment psychology Reinforcement and punishment are the core tools through which operant behavior is modified. These terms are defined by their effect on behavior. Either may be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability of a behavior that they follow, while positive punishment and negative punishment reduce the probability of behaviour that they follow. Another procedure is called "extinction". Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with either positive or negative reinforcement. During extinction the behavior becomes less probable. There are a total of five consequences. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior response is rewarding or the behavior is followed by another stimulus that is rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior. This procedure is usually called simply reinforcement. In the Skinner Box experiment, the aversive stimulus might be a loud noise continuously inside the box; negative reinforcement would happen when the rat presses a lever to turn off the noise. Positive punishment also referred to as "punishment by contingent stimulation" occurs when a behavior response is followed by an aversive stimulus. Positive punishment is a confusing term, so the procedure is usually referred to as "punishment". Negative punishment penalty also called "punishment by contingent withdrawal" occurs when a behavior response is followed by the removal of a stimulus. Extinction occurs when a behavior response that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective. The rat would typically press the lever less often and then stop. The lever pressing would then be said to be "extinguished. Reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the laboratory. Naturally-occurring consequences can also reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not always planned or delivered on purpose. Schedules of reinforcement[ edit ] Schedules of reinforcement are rules that control the delivery of reinforcement. The rules specify either the time that reinforcement is to be made available, or the number of responses to be made, or both. Many rules are possible, but the following are the most basic and commonly used [16] [8] Fixed interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs following the first Page 8

9 response after a fixed time has elapsed after the previous reinforcement. This schedule yields a "break-run" pattern of response; that is, after training on this schedule, the organism typically pauses after reinforcement, and then begins to respond rapidly as the time for the next reinforcement approaches. Reinforcement occurs following the first response after a variable time has elapsed from the previous reinforcement. This schedule typically yields a relatively steady rate of response that varies with the average time between reinforcements. Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses have been emitted since the previous reinforcement. An organism trained on this schedule typically pauses for a while after a reinforcement and then responds at a high rate. If the response requirement is low there may be no pause; if the response requirement is high the organism may quit responding altogether. Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses have been emitted since the previous reinforcement. This schedule typically yields a very high, persistent rate of response. Reinforcement occurs after each response. Organisms typically respond as rapidly as they can, given the time taken to obtain and consume reinforcement, until they are satiated. Factors that alter the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment[ edit ] The effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment can be changed. The opposite effect will occur if the individual becomes deprived of that stimulus: An immediate consequence is more effective than a delayed one. If one gives a dog a treat for sitting within five seconds, the dog will learn faster than if the treat is in thirty. To be most effective, reinforcement should occur consistently after responses and not at other times. Learning may be slower if reinforcement is intermittent, that is, following only some instances of the same response. Responses reinforced intermittently are usually slower to extinguish than are responses that have always been reinforced. The size, or amount, of a stimulus often affects its potency as a reinforcer. Humans and animals engage in cost-benefit analysis. A smaller amount of food may not, to a rat, seem a worthwhile reward for an effortful lever press. A pile of quarters from a slot machine may keep a gambler pulling the lever longer than a single quarter. Most of these factors serve biological functions. For example, the process of satiation helps the organism maintain a stable internal environment homeostasis. When an organism has been deprived of sugar, for example, the taste of sugar is an effective reinforcer. Shaping psychology Shaping is a conditioning method much used in animal training and in teaching nonverbal humans. It depends on operant variability and reinforcement, as described above. The trainer starts by identifying the desired final or "target" behavior. Next, the trainer chooses a behavior that the animal or person already emits with some probability. The form of this behavior is then gradually changed across successive trials by reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior more and more closely. When the target behavior is finally emitted, it may be strengthened and maintained by the use of a schedule of reinforcement. Noncontingent reinforcement may be used in an attempt to reduce an undesired target behavior by reinforcing multiple alternative responses while extinguishing the target response. Stimulus control Though initially operant behavior is emitted without an identified reference to a particular stimulus, during operant conditioning operants come under the control of stimuli that are present when behavior is reinforced. Such stimuli are called "discriminative stimuli. That is, discriminative stimuli set the occasion for responses that produce reward or punishment. Several aspects of this may be distinguished: Discrimination typically occurs when a response is reinforced only in the presence of a specific stimulus. For example, a pigeon might be fed for pecking at a red light and not at a green light; in consequence, it pecks at red and stops pecking at green. Many complex combinations of stimuli and other conditions have been studied; for example an organism might be reinforced on an interval schedule in the presence of one stimulus and on a ratio schedule in the presence of another. Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a previously trained discriminative stimulus. For example, having been trained to peck at "red" a pigeon might also peck at "pink", though usually less strongly. Context refers to stimuli that are continuously present in a situation, like the walls, tables, chairs, etc. Context stimuli may come to control behavior as do discriminative stimuli, though usually more weakly. Behaviors learned in one context may be absent, or altered, in another. This may cause difficulties for behavioral therapy, because behaviors learned in the therapeutic setting may fail to occur elsewhere. The scope of operant analysis is expanded through the idea of behavioral chains, which are sequences of responses bound together by the three-term contingencies defined above. Chaining is based on the fact, experimentally demonstrated, that a discriminative stimulus not only sets the occasion for subsequent Page 9

10 behavior, but it can also reinforce a behavior that precedes it. That is, a discriminative stimulus is also a "conditioned reinforcer". For example, the light that sets the occasion for lever pressing may be used to reinforce "turning around" in the presence of a noise. This results in the sequence "noise â turn-around â light â press lever â food". Much longer chains can be built by adding more stimuli and responses. Escape and avoidance[ edit ] In escape learning, a behavior terminates an aversive stimulus. This is an example of negative reinforcement, defined above. Behavior that is maintained by preventing a stimulus is called "avoidance," as, for example, putting on sun glasses before going outdoors. Avoidance behavior raises the so-called "avoidance paradox", for, it may be asked, how can the non-occurrence of a stimulus serve as a reinforcer? This question is addressed by several theories of avoidance see below. Two kinds of experimental settings are commonly used: Page 10

11 Chapter 6 : Classical Conditioning Examples - Psychestudy After Conditioning: After the events of a Classical Conditioning story, the presence of a conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response. So, if you know the world that a person has lived in. By Saul McLeod, updated Like many great scientific advances, Pavlovian conditioning aka classical conditioning was discovered accidentally. During the s, Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov was researching salivation in dogs in response to being fed. He inserted a small test tube into the cheek of each dog to measure saliva when the dogs were fed with a powder made from meat. Pavlov predicted the dogs would salivate in response to the food placed in front of them, but he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever they heard the footsteps of his assistant who was bringing them the food. When Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the dogs learned to associate with food such as the lab assistant would trigger the same response, he realized that he had made an important scientific discovery. Accordingly, he devoted the rest of his career to studying this type of learning. Pavlovian Conditioning Pavlov started from the idea that there are some things that a dog does not need to learn. In behaviorist terms, food is an unconditioned stimulus and salivation is an unconditioned response. By itself the metronome did not elecit a response from the dogs. After a number of repeats trials of this procedure he presented the metronome on its own. As you might expect, the sound of the clicking metronome on its own now caused an increase in salivation. Because this response was learned or conditioned, it is called a conditioned response and also known as a Pavlovian response. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus. Pavlov found that for associations to be made, the two stimuli had to be presented close together in time such as a bell. He called this the law of temporal contiguity. If the time between the conditioned stimulus bell and unconditioned stimulus food is too great, then learning will not occur. Pavlov and his studies of classical conditioning have become famous since his early work between Summary To summarize, classical conditioning later developed by Watson, involves learning to associate an unconditioned stimulus that already brings about a particular response i. Pavlov developed some rather unfriendly technical terms to describe this process. The response to this is called the unconditioned response or UCR. The neutral stimulus NS is a new stimulus that does not produce a response. Once the neutral stimulus has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus, it becomes a conditioned stimulus CS. The conditioned response CR is the response to the conditioned stimulus. The work of the digestive glands. Lectures on conditioned reflexes. An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex. Foreign Languages Publishing House. Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It. Psychological Review, 20, How to reference this article: Page 11

12 Chapter 7 : Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) - Learning Theories Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both important learning concepts that originated in behavioral psychology. While these two types of conditioning share some similarities, it is important to understand some of the key differences in order to best determine which approach is best for certain learning situations. This is learning from the behavioristic viewpoint. For example, hunger function of the stomach etc. It becomes complete when the object of hunger is obtained. Importance of anticipatory adjustment is very great because, firstly, it is the foundation of all voluntary behaviour. Secondly, it is the active desires that sets the goal and makes the organism strive. Unless this organic pattern takes place within, no real learning can appear. If we can control this anticipatory adjustment we can also control learning. This controlled learning is the conditioned learning. This is conditioned learning. Conditioned learning is also accompanied by a generalization of the experience. For example, a child whose fear is conditioned to a white rat also begins to fear a rabbit, cotton wool, a white fur coat and other alike objects. When the same process is repeated again and again for a long time, after the conditioning has taken place, it produces adverse effects. The conditioned S-R becomes extinguished. For example, repeated exposure of the rat may gradually reduce the fear after it has been conditioned. Conditioned learning actually means responding normally by a natural response to an unnatural situation or stimulus, when in actual fact; the response is to be in the presence of the natural stimulus. But, it is the common experience that the ringing of the recess bell leads to watering of the mouth. This learning of watering of the mouth on hearing the bell is conditioned learning. It is established when repeatedly the recess bell is followed by some refreshments, meals or lunch during recess and bell and food, are associated in quick secession. Much of the learning is by conditioning, Fear, anger and many such reactions are aroused by unnatural, irrelevant or unusual stimuli. The approaching peon of the boss, for example, aroused nervousness and fear, though the peon is harmless and innocent. Similarly, if two girls have been seen together a number of times, seeing one makes you think of the other. These are all illustrations of associative connections. This idea of association has been the basis of the conditioned response theory, according to which learning consists in building up of new associative bonds between a stimulus and a response. The Russian Psychologist Ivan Pavlov experimented for long on dogs to study how the stimuli and responses are associated with different types of the stimuli of bell, different colours or lights and established conditioned response of salivation in the dog. In his experiment, he took a dog, kept him in a room and repeatedly gave the ringing of the bell, as a stimulus, soon followed by food piece of meat which led to salivation. Bell and food were presented in a sequence over a number of times about seven days and at every trial there was the bell. A stage reached when ringing of the bell led to normal salivation even when there was no food supplied. Neurologically it could be explained that the stimulus bell followed by food led to the response of salivation in this manner. This process is by making the nerves carrying the stimulus of the food which leads to the response of salivation, coming closer and closer, with every trail to the nerves carrying the stimulus of the bell that a stage reached that there was an over lapping reinforcement of the nerves carrying the stimulus of food with the nerves carrying stimulus of the bell. In other words, a stage reached when the bell meant the food and the natural response of salivation was there to the unnatural stimulus of the bell. Such establishment of the nervous connections was the conditioned reflex. A schematic diagram of the procedure is as under: In a similar manner, Watson performed an experiment in which a rabbit was shown to a baby followed very soon by a loud bang which made the baby shriek with fear as the sudden and loud bang becomes fearful due to the bombardment of the sound waves on his delicate eardrum and auditory nerves. In the repeated presentation of the rabbit followed by the loud banging, a stage reached when the baby shrieked the moment the rabbit was shown even when there was no banging. This is learning by conditioning. The baby learnt to shriek at the sight of the rabbit which was so harmless and quite incapable of instilling any fear but with the help of banging which is certainly shocking and grousing fear, the baby made to react in the fearful manner at the sight of the innocent and harmless rabbit. Watson further experimented on the same baby when at last instead of being afraid; the child was made to be happy on seeing the rabbit. It was reversing the Page 12

13 conditioning or what was called reconditioning. It was done by giving a chocolate or a candy to the child when the rabbit was shown. After some trials when the rabbit was followed by giving of candy, the rabbit and candy, rabbit and candy sequence established the connection between rabbit and enjoyment of candy as a pleasant experience. A stage reached when instead of being afraid the baby began to play with the rabbit and was very happy to see it because the rabbit was the harbinger of the pleasant feeling of enjoying the candy. This situation of the natural response to an unnatural stimulus with the help of natural stimulus is the process of conditioning. Similarly, a sleeping infant is frightened by the falling pillow but as it is dark when the pillow fell, the fear is conditioned to the dark and he learns to avoid dark places. The mother feeds the infant I after placing him in a certain position on the bed, but he starts felling the pleasure of feeding as he sees her making the bed. All these illustrations throw light on the process of conditioning. The success of the theory depends upon the following principles: It means that there should not be a wide gap of time between the cue stimulus and the satisfying stimulus. The longer the interval between the two, the less effective the association. It is so that reward and punishment whenever to be given, should be immediate. It means that the satisfying stimulus should be of great intensity; otherwise it cannot produce the desirable organic behaviour. It means that the same process should be repeated in the same way without any change for several days. It means that the situation or the surrounding in which learning is to take place should be such as there may not be in it chances of distraction. It means that repetition is necessary for reinforcement and fixation of learned response. Inhibition should not be allowed i. Likewise, we see student-teachers failing to deliver a very well planned and prepared lesson in the presence of his supervisor. Many things of the school-subjects are learnt more adequately through this process. Reading writing, spelling or habits are learnt more effectively through the process of conditioning. Direct method of teaching English is just a process of conditioning. We learn many things in a better way through this process; and that is perhaps the reason why language is more efficiently learnt by living in the society in which it is spoken. Teaching through visual aids also implies the same principle. Discipline may also be caused through conditioning. Good sentiments, good habits, virtues and ideals etc. Classroom procedures are often far removed from the natural procedures required for the process of conditioning. Languages are not taught as they ought to be in connection with many vivid and widely different experiences. If the regulations, commands and virtues are followed by the friendly behaviour and the most sympathetic attitude of the teacher, he can bring about a complaint emotional tone in the class that no amount of punishment can accomplish. But, uniformity of procedure is essential. In conditioning involuntary responses are controlled through the cue stimuli. Many of our fears and phobias may be traced back to some kind of conditioning. When things and objects associate with an unpleasant experience and a sort of generalization is made, phobias appear. Such fears and phobias can be removed by deconditioning. Disliking for a teacher or certain school subjects can also be helped to overcome these dislikes through reconditioning by associating pleasant stimuli with them. Such conditioning often takes place in childhood and though the real causes are not known the effects remain. In this way many of our reactions are not natural but simple causes of conditioning. Moreover, in experimental psychology the theory of conditioned reflex occupies an important place and it has revolutionised child learning. Before the advent of this theory the knowledge of process of learning was vague. It is rightly the importance of association in learning. The intelligent learner can establish conditioned reflexes with facility, while the idiot cannot. Theory of Reward and Punishment: Theory of reward and punishment is also based on conditioning. Children know that they will be punished as a result of wrong actions and they will be rewarded as a result of good deeds. Thus, for the conditioning of the child it is essential to punish him for his misdeeds and give him reward for distinctions. This thing motivates the children in the classroom. Useful in Language Learning: The teacher can utilize this conditioning method in the classroom for teaching the languages. Conditioning is much useful in language training, particularly Sanskrit language. The correct use of the language makes the child conditioned for the use of that particular language. Apart from Sanskrit language, this conditioning method is quite effective to the learning of subjects like Mathematics. Helpful in Removal of Superstitions: A teacher can make the use of the conditioning method to eliminate the superstitions of the children. Certain superstitions like sneezing and passing the cat across your way etc. The teacher has to develop faith in the children through conditioning that such types of Page 13

14 superstitions have no place in real life situations. They have to be pulled out of his false orbit. Conditioning may help the child in breaking negative and promoting attitudes. In short, good and bad habits may be developed in the child through this method of conditioning. Proper habits can be formed by providing the education of positive behaviour and values to the child. Thus, a teacher should present himself before the children as an ideal. A conditioning between good examples and responses of the children will help in developing a healthy attitude in the child. The conditioning method helps the child in adjusting in various types of environments. The beginning of this takes place with the adjustment of the child in class room conditions and school circumstances. Page 14

15 Chapter 8 : Classical Conditioning Simply Psychology Ivan Pavlov and his theory of classical conditioning had a profound impact on the understanding of human behavior. This lesson explains classical conditioning and Pavlov's contributions to psychology. The theory was first discovered by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in early when he was experimenting on his dog Circa. Pavlov then went on to dedicate his entire life towards developing classical conditioning theories and also won the Nobel Prize for his contribution on the field. Examples Classical conditioning learning occurs in our daily life, we just fail to notice them. There are plenty of daily life activities we can associate with classical conditioning learning. Some of which have been listed below: To properly understand how classical conditioning works, first you must properly understand the basic theory of classical conditioning. The concept is really easy to understand. This is a perfect example of classical conditioning, where crying is the behavior learned via classical conditioning. Example 2 If a student is bullied at school, they may start hating the school and respond with fear at the very thought of school. Students might also dislike particular subjects if they have been humiliated or punished by the particular teacher of the subject. This behavior might even continue throughout the academic career of the student. Example 3 Classical conditioning is not a natural occurring phenomenon and conditions can be manually organized to learn new behavior. For instance, a teacher can create positive classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. By creating a condition where students are made to perform in a group, students can overcome such anxiety-provoking situations. In the long run, students learn to speak in front of a mass, and help to be relaxed and calm. Example 4 Suppose, in an office you regularly eat lunch at 12pm. In the office, you have a colleague who immediately alerts everyone about the lunch time. Overall Classical conditioning phenomenon continuously occurs in our surrounding. To generalize, almost every kind of behavior we acquire with the association of conditioned and unconditioned stimulus falls under the category of classical conditioning. The four examples mentioned are general activities that can be related with classical conditioning phenomenon. You could think of plenty more such conditions occurring everyday, which can be explained with Classical Conditioning theory. Some other examples of classical conditioning learning can be found in Military, where cadets are trained to react to certain sounds and situations with this phenomenon. Similarly, best athletes in the world react faster footballer to a ball, due to repetitive association with their sport. Classical conditioning is a powerful tool that can be applied in various ways. Page 15

16 Chapter 9 : Classical vs Operant Conditioning and Social Learning Counselling Connection Classical conditioning is "classical" in that it is the first systematic study of basic laws of learning / conditioning. Summary To summarize, classical conditioning (later developed by Watson, ) involves learning to associate an unconditioned stimulus that already brings about a particular response (i.e., a reflex) with a new (conditioned. Distinguish between classical Pavlovian conditioning and instrumental operant conditioning. Understand some important facts about each that tell us how they work. Understand how they work separately and together to influence human behavior in the world outside the laboratory. Students will be able to list the four aspects of observational learning according to Social Learning Theory. Classical or Pavlovian conditioning is one of the fundamental ways we learn about the world around us. But it is far more than just a theory of learning; it is also arguably a theory of identity. The Pavlov in All of Us: Does your dog learn to beg for food because you reinforce her by feeding her from the table? One, which was first studied by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, is known as classical, or Pavlovian conditioning. In his famous experiment, Pavlov rang a bell and then gave a dog some food. After repeating this pairing multiple times, the dog eventually treated the bell as a signal for food, and began salivating in anticipation of the treat. This kind of result has been reproduced in the lab using a wide range of signals e. First, it is a straightforward test of associative learning that can be used to study other, more complex behaviors. Second, because classical conditioning is always occurring in our lives, its effects on behavior have important implications for understanding normal and disordered behavior in humans. In a general way, classical conditioning occurs whenever neutral stimuli are associated with psychologically significant events. With food poisoning, for example, although having fish for dinner may not normally be something to be concerned about i. These paired events are often described using terms that can be applied to any situation. On the other hand, a conditioned stimulus produces a conditioned response. A conditioned stimulus CS is a signal that has no importance to the organism until it is paired with something that does have importance. Before the dog has learned to associate the bell CS with the presence of food US, hearing the bell means nothing to the dog. However, after multiple pairings of the bell with the presentation of food, the dog starts to drool at the sound of the bell. This drooling in response to the bell is the conditioned response CR. Although it can be confusing, the conditioned response is almost always the same as the unconditioned response. However, it is called the conditioned response because it is conditional on or, depends on being paired with the conditioned stimulus e. To help make this clearer, consider becoming really hungry when you see the logo for a fast food restaurant. Another example you are probably very familiar with involves your alarm clock. In this case, waking up early US produces a natural sensation of grumpiness UR. Rather than waking up early on your own, though, you likely have an alarm clock that plays a tone to wake you. After enough pairings, this tone CS will automatically produce your natural response of grumpiness CR. Thus, this linkage between the unconditioned stimulus US; waking up early and the conditioned stimulus CS; the tone is so strong that the unconditioned response UR; being grumpy will become a conditioned response CR; e. Modern studies of classical conditioning use a very wide range of CSs and USs and measure a wide range of conditioned responses. Receiving a reward can condition you toward certain behaviors. For example, when you were a child, your mother may have offered you this deal: First studied by Edward Thorndike, and later extended by B. Skinner, this second type of conditioning is known as instrumental or operant conditioning. Operant conditioning occurs when a behavior as opposed to a stimulus is associated with the occurrence of a significant event. At first, the rat may simply explore its cage, climbing on top of things, burrowing under things, in search of food. Eventually while poking around its cage, the rat accidentally presses the lever, and a food pellet drops in. Now, once the rat recognizes that it receives a piece of food every time it presses the lever, the behavior of lever-pressing becomes reinforced. As you drive through one city course multiple times, you try a number of different streets to get to the finish line. On one of these trials, you discover a shortcut that dramatically improves your overall time. You have learned this new path through operant conditioning. That is, by engaging with your environment operant responses, you performed a sequence of behaviors that that was positively reinforced i. Operant conditioning research studies how the Page 16