scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Transcription

1 Social Thinking Social Psychology scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another Attribution Theory tendency to give a causal explanation for someone s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person s disposition

2 THEMES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 1) POWER OF SOCIAL SITUATIONS: In the prison experiment and others, we will see how the situation can produce conformity to group standards --- even when the group is clearly wrong. Other studies demonstrate how situational forces can lead many average people to blindly follow orders --- even orders to harm others. 2) SUBJECTIVE SOCIAL REALITY: Psychologists know we do not respond to objective reality, but rather to subjective interpretation--our perception--which can vary widely from person to person. 3) PROMOTE THE HUMAN CONDITION: Important implications regarding prejudice, violence and terrorism for resolving conflicts among individuals, groups, and nations.

3 Social Thinking Fundamental Attribution Error tendency for observers, when analyzing another s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition Attitude belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events

4 Social Thinking Attitude belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events OUTSIDE INFLUENCES ON WHAT WE SAY AND DO ARE MINIMAL (2002, with most Americans supporting preemptive war in Iraq, most Democrats publicly supported the idea while having private reservations) THE ATTITUDE IS SPECIFICALLY RELEVANT TO THE BEHAVIOR (proclaim love while yelling at mate, cherish honesty while cheating on test) WE ARE KEENLY AWARE OF OUR ATTITUDES (we mindlessly follow habit or others expectations while our attitudes lie dormant)

5 Social Thinking Social Context The real, imagined, or symbolic presence of other people; the activities and interactions that take place among people; the settings in which behavior occurs; and the expectations and social norms governing behavior in a given setting.

6 The Stanford Prison Experiment, by Philip Zimbardo underscores the power of social situations to control human behavior. This was the major theme to emerge from social psychological research in the past 50 years. Click here to go to websitehttp://

7 Social Thinking How we explain someone s behavior affects how we react to it Situational attribution Maybe that driver is ill. Tolerant reaction (proceed cautiously, allow driver a wide berth) Negative behavior Dispositional attribution Crazy driver! Unfavorable reaction (speed up and race past the other driver, give a dirty look)

8 Social Thinking Our behavior is affected by our inner attitudes as well as by external social influences Internal attitudes External influences Behavior

9 Social Thinking Attitudes follow behavior Cooperative actions feed mutual liking

10 Social Thinking Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request Role set of expectations about a social position defines how those in the position ought to behave when you adopt a new role (college student, marry, new job), you strive to follow the social prescriptions. May feel phony at first while you act the role.

11 Social Influence Social Norm an understood rule for socially accepted and expected behavior (socially appropriate attitudes and behaviors) prescribes proper behavior unwritten rules for the ways members should act Can be broadly defined: appropriate religious or political attitudes Can be loosely defined: being quiet Can guide conversation: restricting discussion of sensitive or taboo subjects in front of certain people. in library or shining shoes for job interview. Can define dress codes: uniforms, business suits, cowboy hats.

12 Social Thinking Cognitive Dissonance Theory we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent example- when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

13 Cognitive Dissonance When we voluntarily undergo unpleasant experiences. voluntarily produce discomfort with ideas that clash with their attitudes and values et. al. Republican speaker in a Democratic auditorium Generally speaking, when people s cognitions and actions are in conflict (a state of dissonance) they often reduce the conflict by changing their thinking to fit their behavior. Cognitive Dissonance Theory people are motivated to avoid uncomfortable state of dissonance must change either one s behavior or one s cognitions et.al. when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

14 Social Thinking Cognitive dissonance

15 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE EXPLANATIONS People don t want to see themselves as foolish or inconsistent. It explains why: smokers rationalize their habit why people who volunteer (putting a lot of time/effort into something) will become more committed why a woman is attracted to a man who abuses her--her drive for self-justification may make her reduce her dissonance by focusing on his good points and minimizing the abuse Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that people are attracted to those for whom they have agreed to suffer..

16 Social Influence Conformity adjusting one s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard Normative Social Influence influence resulting from a person s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

17 Social Influence Asch s conformity experiments (1955) Imagine you are a subject who has volunteered to participate in a VISUAL PERCEPTION STUDY. When you arrive, seven other participants are already seated in a row. The experimenter reveals a pair of cards and asks you to determine which of the three comparison lines is the same length as the standard line. You look at the lines and immediately decide on the correct response.. DO NOT BLURT A RESPONSE!!!!

18 Social Influence Asch s conformity experiments

19 Social Influence Asch s conformity experiments Starting at the far end of the row, each person gives their response one at a time..giving the same OBVIOUSLY correct answer. On the next trial the card is revealed and each subject gives their answer. However, this time they all choose the wrong line!! It s now your turn to respond. HOW WOULD YOU ANSWER??? Do you maintain your opinion or conform?

20 Social Influence Solomon Asch s conformity experiments RESULTS: Each subject participated in the experimental situation several times. Approximately 75% of them went along with the group s consensus at least once.

21 Social Influence Informational Social Influence Influence resulting from one s willingness to accept others opinions about reality Here, the naïve individual (#6) display obvious concern about the majority s erroneous judgment.

22 SOURCE OF DISCRIMINATION: CONFORMITY TO NORMS unthinking tendency to maintain conditions the way they are secretaries male or female? executives male or female? when people see that the majority of a profession is of a particular gender or race, we assume that is the social and economic norm the opposing gender or race may avoid taking classes to become a part of that group.

23 Social Influence The chameleon effect Number of times When with a face-rubbing and footshaking confederate, participants tended to likewise rub their face or shake their foot Participant rubs face Confederate rubs face Chartrand & Bargh, 1999 Participant shakes foot Confederate shakes foot

24 Social Influence Percentage of conformity to confederates wrong answers 50% Difficult judgments Easy judgments Low Conformity highest on important judgments High Importance Participants judged which person in Slide 2 was the same as the person in Slide 1

25 Social Influence Milgram s follow-up obedience experiment

26 Social Influence Social Facilitation improved performance of tasks in the presence of others occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered Social Loafing tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

27 Social Facilitation

28 Social Influence Deindividuation loss of self-awareness and selfrestraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

29 Social Influence Group Polarization enhancement of a group s prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group Groupthink mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives

30 SIX CONDITIONS LIKELY TO PROMOTE GROUPTHINK: isolation of the group high group cohesiveness directive leadership lack of norms requiring methodical procedures homogeneity of members social background and ideology high stress from external threats with low hope of a better solution than that of the group leader illusion of invulnerability collective rationalization belief in inherent morality of the group stereotypes of outgroups direct pressure on dissenters self-censorship illusion of unanimity self-appointed mind guards incomplete survey of objectives incomplete survey of alternatives poor information search failure to examine risks of preferred choice selective bias in processing information at hand failure to reappraise alternatives failure to work out contingency plans.

31 HOW TO AVOID GROUPTHINK encourage vigorous debate make recommendations on unbiased reports leader shouldn t make his/her opinions known make sure group members are not cut off from out side input. get new perspectives assign one person to be devil s advocate

32 Social Influence If a group is like-minded, discussion strengthens its prevailing opinions

33 OBEDIENCE Stanley Milgram knew that people often comply with social pressures. But how would they respond to direct commands? *Punish the student for wrong answers p.706

34 A volunteer subject, called teacher believed that the research was aimed to improve learning and memory. To administer punishment for not answering a question correctly, the teacher was told to throw a switch which would deliver an electric shock to the learner each time he made an error. The teacher was told to increase the level of the shock by a fixed amount with every error. The experiment was overseen by the experimenter in a white coat---an authority figure presenting the rules and ordered the teacher to do their job whenever they hesitated or dissented. The shock generator was clearly labeled that featured a row of 30 switches ranging from 15 volts to 450 volts, marked XXX. The student was play by a pleasant, mild-mannered man about 50 years old who mentioned having a heart condition. He was strapped to an electric chair in the next room HOW FAR WOULD THE PEOPLE GO BEFORE THEY DEFIED THE AUTHORITY FIGURE AND REFUSED TO GO ON???

35 At 75 volts, the student made a moan and grunt. At 150 volts he would cry out that he could not stand the pain any longer. The learner s protests increased up the scale. At 300 volts the learner shouted that he would no longer participate in the experiment and must be freed. At 375 volts, the learner screamed out and there was a thud and then silence. The experiment ended when the teacher reached the 450 volt maximum or refused to go on. HOW FAR WOULD THE PEOPLE GO BEFORE THEY DEFIED THE AUTHORITY FIGURE AND REFUSED TO GO ON???

36 Social Influence 2/3 delivered the 450 volts. Most who refused maximum, stopped at 300 volts. NO ONE who got to the last 5 switches refused to go all the way. Milgram s follow-up obedience experiment Percentage of subjects who obeyed experimenter Slight (15-60) Moderate (75-120) Strong ( ) Very strong ( ) The majority of subjects continued to obey to the end Extreme Intense intensity Danger ( )( ) severe ( ) Shock levels in volts XXX ( )

37 The ultimate demonstration of this effect was seen in the World War II era, with the emergence of Adolf Hitler in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy. These leaders transformed rational citizens of whole nations into mindless loyal followers of a fascist ideology bent on world domination.

38 WHY DO WE OBEY AUTHORITY? From Milgram variations of the study, we can conclude: When a peer modeled obedience by complying with the authority figure s commands When the victim was remote from the teacher and could not be seen or heard. When the teacher was under direct surveillance of the authority figure so he was aware of his presence When a participant acted as an intermediary bystanders, merely assisting the one who was delivering the shock, rather than actually throwing the switch. When the authority figure had higher relative status, as when he was billed as doctor or professor. All of these result from SITUATIONAL variables not PERSONALITY variables. All of the participants were well-meaning individuals

39 Social Influence Some individuals resist social coercion. roughly 1 in 3 in Milgram s experiment, as this unarmed man did in Beijing in 1989.

40 Social Relations Prejudice an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action Stereotype a generalized (sometimes accurate, but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

41 Social Relations Does perception change with race?

42 Social Relations Americans today express much less racial and gender prejudice

43 Social Relations Ingroup Us - people with whom one shares a common identity Outgroup Them - those perceived as different or apart from one s ingroup people mentally place these people at greater social distance then members of your own group. less likely to view these people as socially equal this inequality easily translates into inferiority, making it easier for you to treat members of an outgroup with contempt.

44 Social Relations Ingroup Bias tendency to favor one s own group Scapegoat Theory theory that prejudice provides an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame Just-World Phenomenon tendency of people to believe the world is just people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

45 Social Relations Vivid cases (9/11 terrorists) feed stereotypes

46 Fuel for Terrorism poverty, hunger, powerlessness, and hopelessness. much of the world sees no way out. ethnic hatred and wars aggravate the situation most of the world s growing population is in poorer countries jobs in these countries depend on resources that are being depleted (fisheries, forests, soil, water) millions flee traditional environments to the overpopulated cities and leads to Zimbardo p.597

47 Fuel for Terrorism Terrorism is really about psychology. Terrorism typically involves: relatively small group of people take dramatic, violent action against a larger group intention of spreading fear inducing anxiety and uncertainty about their government s ability to protect them.

48 Fuel for Terrorism TERRORISTS DO NOT WANT TO CONQUER LANDS-- THEY WANT TO CONQUER MINDS!!! The politicians easiest response is to demonize those who perpetrate the evil deeds. Labeling others as evil usually turns them into objects of scorn and prevents any attempt to understand the reasons for their actions.

49 Fuel for Terrorism CONFLICT RESOLUTION APPROACH Herbert Kelman, PhD 1951, Yale University Professor, Harvard University applied lessons from the Eagles & Rattlers to the Israelis and Palestinians brings community leaders from both sides together for small group discussion mid-level leaders, not high-profile leaders encourage cooperation minimize rewards for hostile behaviors although inspired by science, most of the variables remain uncontrolled

50 Fuel for Terrorism Terrorism does not always involve international conflict. Columbine High Federal Building in Oklahoma City Virginia Tech Massacre hate crimes (racial, ethnic, gays, ) violence against abortion facilities

51 Social Relations Aggression any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy Frustration-Aggression Principle principle that frustration the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal creates anger, which can generate aggression

52 Social Relations

53 Social Relations Juvenile violent crime arrest rates Arrest per 100, to 17- year-olds 1,

54 Social Relations Men who sexually coerce women

55 Social Relations Conflict perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas Social Trap a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

56 Person 2 Choose B Choose A Social Relations Person 1 Choose A Choose B Optimal outcome Probable outcome Social trap by pursuing our selfinterest and not trusting others, we can end up losers

57 Social Relations- Attractiveness Mere Exposure Effect repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them Conceptions of attractiveness vary by culture

58 Social Relations Passionate Love an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another usually present at the beginning of a love relationship Companionate Love deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

59 Social Relations- Attractiveness Proximity mere exposure effect- repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them Physical Attractiveness youthfulness may be associated with health and fertility Similarity friends share common attitudes, beliefs, interests

60 It is no surprise that we are attracted to people who have something to offer us. Reward Theory of Attraction attraction is a form of social learning we like those best who can give us maximum rewards at minimum cost. Powerful sources of reward that predict interpersonal attraction: Proximity Most of us choose our friends, associates and lovers because Similarity they offer some combination of self-disclosure these factors with relatively low social cost. physical attractiveness

61 Social Relations Equity a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it Self-Disclosure revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others Altruism unselfish regard for the welfare of others

62 Social Relations--Bystander Problem In 1964, Kitty Genovese returned to her apartment after work in a quiet, middle-class Queens neighborhood. She left her car and was viciously attacked by a man with a knife. She screamed for help as she was being stabbed. After one neighbor yelled out the window, Leave that girl alone, the attacker stopped, walked away, but then returned and continued to assault Genovese. She continued to scream until someone finally called the police. By the time the police arrived, Genovese was dead.

63 Social Relations--Bystander Problem The attack had lasted 35 minutes. Not one person telephoned the police during the assault!! At least 38 people in the surrounding apartments had witnessed the attack, but had not called the police. One couple had moved their chairs closer to the window in order to watch the violence. One person called police only after Kitty had been raped and murdered The murderer was never found.

64 For those who do help people in distress, it was found that most have had some medical, police, first-aid, or CPR training in emergency situations. Another study by Tom Moriarity (1975) arranged 2 experiments: (1) New Yorkers watched as a thief snatched a woman s suitcase in a restaurant when she left her table (2) People watched a thief grab a portable radio from a beach blanket when the owner left for a few minutes. Most onlookers did nothing. However, it was found that if the victim asked the observer to keep an eye on my stuff, almost all bystanders intervened- --even to the point of tackling the runaway thief on the beach.

65 Social Relations Bystander Effect tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

66 Social Relations The decision-making process for bystander intervention

67 Social Relations Social Exchange Theory the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs Superordinate Goals shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

68 Social Influence Social Facilitation improved performance of tasks in the presence of others occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered research shows that people who work in small groups in class learn more and are more productive than people who work alone. For example, after a light turns green, drivers take about 15 percent less time to travel the first 100 yards when another car is beside them at the intersection than when they are But on difficult tasks, people alone. perform less well in the presence of others. p

69 Social Facilitation Home Advantage in Major Team Sports Home Team Games Winning Sport Studied Percentage Baseball 23, % Football 2, Ice hockey 4, Basketball 13, Soccer 37,

70 Social Influence Social Loafing tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable People who are a part of a group feel less accountable.

71 Social Influence Deindividuation loss of self-awareness and selfrestraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

72 Social Influence Self-fulfilling Prophecy occurs when one person s belief about others leads one to act in ways that induce the others to appear to confirm the belief

73 Social Relations Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-reduction (GRIT) a strategy designed to decrease international tensions one side announces recognition of mutual interests and initiates a small conciliatory act opens door for reciprocation by other party