Learning 1. How Do We Learn? Classical Conditioning. 7. In Pavlov's classic experiment, a tone, or

Transcription

1 Learning 1 How Do We Learn? Objective 7-1:Define learning, and identify some basic forms of learning. 1. The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors is called 2. More than 200years ago, philosophers such as John Locke and David Hume argued that an important factor in learning is our tendency to events that occur in sequence. Even simple animals, such as the sea slug Aplysia, can learn simple between stimuli. This type of learning is called 3. The type of learning in which the organism learns to associate two stimuli is conditioning. A situation or event that evokes a response is a 4. The tendency of organisms to associate a response and its consequence forms the basis of conditioning. 5. We acquire mental information that guides our behavior through. Complex animals often learn behaviors merely by others perform them. This is called Classical Conditioning Objective 7-2:Define classical conditioning and behaviorism, and describe the basic components of classical conditioning. 6. Classical conditioning was first explored by the Russian physiologist Early in the twentieth century, psychologist urged psychologists to discard references to mental concepts in favor of studying observable behavior. This view, called, influenced American psychology during the first half of that century. 7. In Pavlov's classic experiment, a tone, or is sounded just before food, the is placed in the animal's mouth. 8. An animal will salivate when food is placed in its mouth. This salivation is called the 9. Eventually, the dogs in Pavlov's experiment would salivate on hearing the tone, now called the.this salivation is called the STUDY TIP: Students often confuse stimulus with response and conditioned with unconditioned. The stimulus is the event that causes something else, the response, to happen. Unconditioned means "unlearned"; conditioned means "learned." Thus, an unconditioned response (UR) is an event that occurs naturally in response to some stimulus. An unconditioned stimulus (US) is something that naturally and automatically triggers the unlearned response. A conditioned stimulus (CS) is an originally neutral stimulus (NS) that, through learning, comes to be associated with some unlearned response. A conditioned response (CR) is the learned response to the originally neutral but now conditioned stimulus. Stimulus (event or other trigger) -> Response Unconditioned = unlearned Conditioned = learned So, unconditioned stimulus + conditioned stimulus unconditioned response conditioned response

2 2 Learning APPLICATIONS: Classical conditioning is all around us. It is especially common in the realm of emotional behavior. Test your understanding of the basic elements of classical conditioning in the following example. Then, consider whether there are emotions of your own that might have developed as the product of classical conditioning. As a child, you were playing in the yard one day when a neighbor's cat wandered over. Your mother (who has a terrible fear of animals) screamed and snatched you into her arms. Her behavior caused you to cry. You now have a fear of cats. 10. The NS, then CS is 11. The US is 12. The CR is 13. The UR is 14. You always rattle the box of dog biscuits before giving your dog a treat. As you do so, your dog salivates. At first, rattling the box is a _ which eventually becomes a. Your dog's salivation is a. _ a. NS; CS; CR b. CS; NS; UR c. NS; US; CR d. US; NS; UR Objective 7-3: Summarize the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. Use the following graph as a reference for the answers to 15(a), 19(b),and 20(c). Strong TI a. CS+ us b. CSalone c. Strength ofcr Weak I, ~ n_.. ::::::000.."" 15. The initial learning of a conditioned response is called (a) For many conditioning situations, the optimal interval between a neutral stimulus and the US is Time 16. When the US is presented prior to a neutral stimulus, conditioning (does/does not) occur. 17. Sexual conditioning studies with quail demonstrate that classical conditioning is highly adaptive because it helps animals and 18. The procedure in which an established conditioned stimulus is paired with a different stimulus, thereby establishing the latter as a stimulus, is called -, 19. If a CS is repeatedly presented without the US, (b) soon occurs; that is, the CR diminishes. 20. Following a pause, however, the CR reappears in response to the CS; this phenomenon is called (c) 21. Subjects often respond to a similar stimulus as they would to the original CS. This phenomenon is called 22. Humans and other animals can also be trained not to respond to stimuli. This learned ability is called 23. Being able to recognize differences among stimuli has value because it lets us limit our learned responses to appropriate stimuli. STUDY TIP: Some students find the terms discrimination and generalization confusing because of their negative social connotations. In the context of classical conditioning, discrimination is a healthy sign that the subject of conditioning has learned the difference between two stimuli, much as a "discriminating coffee lover" can taste subtle variations between two coffee blends. Generalization is apparent when discrimination does not occur.

3 Learning 3 APPLICATION: Bill had an American-made car that was in the shop more than it was out. Since then he will not even consider owning an American-made car. 24. Bill's attitude is an example of Bill's friend Andy also had an American-made car with similar problems. Deciding that it was just that brand, Andy decided to try another brand. Rather than bunch all American-made cars together, he was a buyer of cars. Objective 7-4:Explain why Pavlov's work remains so important, and describe some applications of his work to human health and well-being. 25. Classical conditioning is one way that virtually all organisms learn to to their environment. 26. Another aspect of Pavlov's legacy is that he showed how a process such as learning could be studied Explain why the study of classical conditioning is important. 27. Through classical conditioning, former drug users often feel a when they are in the associated with previous highs. 28. Research studies demonstrate that the body's immune system (can/cannot) be classically conditioned. Describe the Watson and Rayner experiment. Objective 7-5: Describe how operant behavior is reinforced and shaped. 29. B. F. Skinner used Thorndike's as a starting point in developing a behavioral technology. This principle states that behavior is likely to 30. In operant conditioning, organisms associate their own actions with Actions followed by increase; actions followed by decrease. 31. Skinner designed an apparatus, called the to investigate learning in animals. This design creates a stage on which organisms act out Skinner's concept of any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response. 32. The procedure in which a person teaches an animal to perform an intricate behavior by building up to it in small steps is called This method involves reinforcing successive of the desired behavior. 33. In experiments to determine what an animal can perceive, researchers have found that animals are capable of forming and between stimuli. Similar experiments have been conducted with babies, who also can't verbalize their responses. 34. A situation, event, or signal that a certain response will be reinforced is a

4 4 Learning APPLICATION: 35. Which of the following is an example of shaping? a. A dog learns to salivate at the sight of a box of dog biscuits. b. A new driver learns to stop at an intersection when the light changes to red. c. A parrot is rewarded first for making any sound, then for making a sound similar to "Laura," and then for "speaking" its owner's name. Objective 7-6: Discuss the differences between positive and negative reinforcement, and identify the basic types of reinforcers. 36. A stimulus that strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after a response is a 37. A stimulus that strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is a 38. Reinforcers, such as food and shock, that are related to basic needs and therefore do not rely on learning are called 39. Reinforcers that must be conditioned and therefore derive their power through association are called 40. Children who are able to delay gratification tend to become (more/less) socially competent and high achieving as they mature. 41. Immediate reinforcement (is/is not) more effective than its alternative, reinforcement. This explains in part the difficulty that users have in quitting their habits, as well as the tendency of some teens to engage in risky, STUDY TIP: Some students have a problem differentiating positive and negative reinforcers because they naturally think "positive" indicates a "good," or desirable, outcome, while "negative" connotes a "bad," or undesirable, outcome. Remember that from the organism's point of view, reinforcement is always a desirable outcome. You may find it useful to think of a photography analogy. A "negative" is a reverse image in which the "positive" photographic image is not present. So too, negative reinforcement involves taking away an event-in this case, one that is undesirable. Objective 7-7: Explain how the different reinforcement schedules affect behavior. 42. A is a pattern specifying how often a is reinforced. 43. The procedure involving reinforcement of each and every response is called Under these conditions, learning is (rapid/slow). When this type of reinforcement is discontinued, extinction is (rapid/ slow). 44. The procedure in which responses are reinforced only part of the time is called reinforcement. Under these conditions, learning is generally (faster /slower) than it is with continuous reinforcement. Behavior reinforced in this manner is (very /not very) resistant to extinction. 45. When behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses, a - schedule is in effect. 46. Three-year-old Yusef knows that if he cries when he wants a treat, his mother will sometimes give in. When, as in this case, reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses, a - schedule is being used. 47. Reinforcement of the first response after a set interval of time defines the - schedule. An example of this schedule is 48. When the first response after varying amounts of time is reinforced, a - schedule is in effect.

5 Learning 5 Describe the typical patterns of response under fixedinterval, fixed-ratio, variable-interval, and variable-ratio schedules of reinforcement. APPLICATlONS: 49. You are expecting an important letter in the mail. As the regular delivery time approaches you glance more and more frequently out the window, searching for the letter carrier. Your behavior in this situation typifies that associated with which schedule of reinforcement? a. fixed-ratio c. fixed-interval b. variable-ratio d. variable-interval 50. From a casino owner's viewpoint, which of the following jackpot-payout schedules would be the most desirable for reinforcing customer use of a slot machine? a. variable-ratio b. fixed-ratio c. variable-interval d. fixed-interval 51. Lars, a shoe salesman, is paid every two weeks; whereas, Tom receives a commission for each pair of shoes he sells. Evidently, Lars is paid on a schedule of reinforcement, and Tom on a schedule of reinforcement. a. fixed-ratio; fixed-interval b. continuous; intermittent c. fixed-interval; fixed-ratio d. variable-interval; variable-ratio 52. Jack finally takes out the garbage in order to get his father to stop pestering him. Jack's behavior is being influenced by 53. Your instructor invites you to her home as part of a select group of students to discuss possible careers in psychology. The invitation is an example of a Objective 7-8: Discuss how punishment and negative reinforcement differ, and explain how punishment affects behavior. 54. Negative reinforcement (increases / decreases) a response by an aversive stimulus after that response. Punishment (increases/decreases) a response by an aversive stimulus after that response. 55. An aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior that preceded it is called If an aversive stimulus is administered, it is called If a desirable stimulus is withdrawn, it is called 56. Because punished behavior is merely, it may reappear. Also, punishment teaches, that behavior that is unacceptable in one context may be acceptable in another. Punishment can also lead to and a sense of helplessness, as well as to the association of the aversive event with. 57. Punishment also often increases and does not guide the individual toward more desirable behavior. STUDY TIP/APPLICATION: To avoid the natural tendency to confuse punishment and negative reinforcement, remember that positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement both lead to an increase in behavior, while punishment decreases behavior. In punishment, something bad occurs following an undesirable behavior; in negative reinforcement, something bad is removed. Complete the chart below of examples of punishment and negative reinforcement. The first example has been filled in for you.

6 6 Learning 58. Which Is Taken Away, Is This Punishment or Behavior Consequence Something Good or Bad? Negative Reinforcement? Driving Lose driver's while intoxicated license Good Punishment a. Forgetting to give your roommate a phone message b. Putting on your coat so that you are no longer cold c. Getting a drink when you are thirsty d. Using your laptop until the battery dies e. Your brother nagging you until you help him with his homework Objective 7-9:Describe the controversy over Skinner's views of human behavior, and identify some ways to apply operant conditioning principles at school, in sports, at work, and at home. 59. Skinner's views were controversial because he insisted that influences, rather than and shape behavior. 60. Skinner also advocated the use of principles to influence people in ways that promote more desirable 61. Skinner's critics argued that he people by neglecting their personal and by seeking to their actions. 62. The use of teaching machines and programmed textbooks was an early application of the operant conditioning procedure of to education. Online systems, software that is and -based learning are newer examples of this application of operant principles. Reinforcement principles can also be used to enhance abilities by shaping successive approximations of new skills. 63. In boosting productivity in the workplace, positive reinforcement is (more/less) effective when applied to specific behaviors than when given to reward general merit and when the desired performance is well defined and For such behaviors, immediate reinforcement is (more/no more) effective than delayed reinforcement. 64. In using operant conditioning to change your own behavior, you would follow these four steps a. b. c. d. APPLICATIONS: 65. The manager of a manufacturing plant wishes to use positive reinforcement to increase the productivity of workers. Which of the following procedures would probably be the most effective? a. Deserving employees are given a general merit bonus at the end of each fiscal year. b. A productivity goal that seems attainable, yet is unrealistic, is set for each employee. c. Employees are given immediate bonuses for specific behaviors related to productivity. d. Employees who fail to meet standards of productivity receive pay cuts.

7 Learning Reggie's mother tells him that he can watch TV after he cleans his room. Evidently, Reggie's mother is attempting to use to increase room cleaning. a. operant conditioning b. secondary reinforcement c. positive reinforcement d. all of these procedures Objective 7-10:Identify the characteristics that distinguish operant conditioning from classical conditioning. the influences of processes and predispositions. STUDY TIP/APPLICATION: If you still find yourself confusing classical conditioning and operant conditioning, try the following. Ask yourself two questions: (1) Is the behavior voluntary (operant conditioning) or involuntary (classical conditioning)? (2) Does the learning involve an association between two stimuli (classical conditioning) or between a response and an outcome (operant conditioning)? Test your understanding with the following examples. 73. Is the Behavior Type of Behavior Voluntary or Involuntary? Conditioning a. After receiving a mild shock from the "invisible fence" surrounding his yard, a dog no longer crosses the boundary. b. You flinch when someone yells, "Duck!" c. You ask more questions in class after the professor praises you for a good question. d. The pupil of your eye dilates (opens wider) after you enter a darkened theater. 67. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both forms of 68. Both types of conditioning involve similar processes of,,,, and 69. Classical conditioning associates stimuli with stimuli that trigger responses that are _ Thus, in this form of conditioning, the organism (does/does not) control the responses. 70. The reflexive responses of classical conditioning involve behavior. 71. In contrast, behavior that is more spontaneous and that is influenced by its consequences is called behavior. 72. Classical and operant conditioning are both subject to Biology, Cognition, and Learning Objective 7-11: Explain how biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning. 74. Some psychologists once believed that any natural could be conditioned to any neutral 75. Garcia discovered that rats would associate with taste but not with other stimuli. Garcia found that taste-aversion conditioning (would/would not) occur when the delay between the CS and the US was more than an hour is speedier, stronger, and more durable when the CS is relevant. 76. Results such as these demonstrate that the principles of learning are constrained by the predispositions of each animal species and that they help each species to its environment.

8 8 Learning They also demonstrate the importance of different in understanding complex phenomena. 77. Operant conditioning (is/is not) constrained by an animal's biological predispositions. 78. For instance, with animals it is difficult to use food as a to behaviors that are not naturally associated with 79. Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally When animals revert to their biologically predisposed patterns, they are exhibiting what is called APPLICATIONS: 80. A pigeon can easily be taught to flap its wings to avoid shock but not for food reinforcement. According to the text, this is most likely so because a. pigeons are biologically predisposed to flap their wings to escape aversive events and to use their beaks to obtain food. b. shock is a more motivating stimulus for birds than food is. c. hungry animals have difficulty delaying their eating long enough to learn any new skill. d. of all of these reasons. 81. Last evening May-Ling ate her first cheeseburger and french fries at an American fast-food restaurant. A few hours later she became ill. It can be expected that May- Ling will a. develop an aversion to the sight of a cheeseburger and french fries. b. develop an aversion to the taste of a cheeseburger and french fries. c. not associate her illness with the food she ate. d. associate her sickness with something she experienced immediately before she became ill. Objective 7-12: Explain how cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning. 82. The early behaviorists believed that to understand behavior in various organisms, any presumption of was unnecessary. 83. Experiments by Rescorla and Wagner demonstrate that a CS must reliably the US for an association to develop and, more generally, that processes playa role in conditioning. It is as if the animal learns to that the US will occur. 84. The importance of cognitive processes in human conditioning is demonstrated by the failure of classical conditioning as a treatment for 85. Skinner and other behaviorists resisted the growing belief that expectations, perceptions, and other processes have a valid place in the science of psychology. 86. When a well-learned route in a maze is blocked, rats sometimes choose an alternative route, acting as if they were consulting a 87. Animals may learn from experience even when reinforcement is not available. When learning is not apparent until reinforcement has been provided, is said to have occurred. 88. Excessive rewards may undermine, which is the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. The motivation to seek external rewards and avoid punishment is called APPLICATIONS: 89. After discovering that her usual route home was closed due to road repairs, Sharetta used her knowledge of the city and sense of direction to find an alternative route.

9 Learning 9 This is an example of a. latent learning. b. observational learning. c. shaping. d. using a cognitive map. 90. Two rats are independently placed in a maze. One rat is rewarded with food in the goal box. The other receives no food reward. On a later trial, food is placed in the goal box for the "unrewarded" rat. What can you say about the rat's behavior on that trial? a. The "unrewarded" rat will run to the goal box just as quickly as the rewarded rat. b. The rat will wander around the maze and never find the food reward. c. The rat will find the food reward, but it will take much longer than the rewarded rat. d. The rat will not even try to find the food reward. 91. Nancy decided to take introductory psychology because she has always been interested in human behavior. Jack enrolled in the same course because he thought it would be easy. Nancy's behavior was motivated by, Jack's by a. extrinsic motivation; intrinsic motivation b. intrinsic motivation; extrinsic motivation c. drives; incentives d. incentives; drives Learning by Observation Objective 7-13:Describe the process of observational learning, and explain how some scientists believe it is enabled by mirror neurons. 92. Learning by observing and imitating others is called,or This form of learning (occurs/does not occur) in species other than our own. 93. The psychologist best known for research on observational learning is 94. In one experiment, the child who viewed an adult punch an inflatable doll played (more/less) aggressively than the child who had not observed the adult. 95. Bandura believes people imitate a model because of and those received by the model as well as by imitators. 96. Models are most effective when they are perceived as,, or Models are also most effective when their words and actions are 97. Neuroscientists have found neurons in the brain's lobe that may provide a neural basis for learning. These neurons have been observed to fire when monkeys perform a simple task and when they Whether the human ability to and is due to these neurons or to distributed brain is an issue currently being debated. 98. By age, infants will imitate various novel gestures. By age they will imitate acts modeled on television. Children's brains enable their and their APPLICATIONS: Children-and, of course, adults learn a great deal by watching other people. Depending on the models, the behavior they learn may be good or bad. 99. During holiday breaks Lionel watches wrestling, which his aggressive tendencies. His brother Michael won't watch the wrestling because he feels the pain of the choke hold, for example, as reflected in his brain's Instead, Michael spends time with Grandma, who cooks for the poor during the holiday season, helping Michael to learn behavior Mrs. Ramirez often tells her children that it is important to buckle their seat belts while riding in the car, but she

10 10 Learning rarely does so herself. Her children will probably learn to a. use their seat belts and tell others it is important to do so. b. use their seat belts but not tell others it is important to do so. c. tell others it is important to use seat belts but rarely use them themselves. d. neither tell others that seat belts are important nor use them After watching coverage of the Olympics on television recently, Lynn and Susan have been staging their own "summer games." Which of the following best accounts for their behavior? a. classical conditioning b. observational learning c. latent learning d. shaping watching violence on television (does/does not) lead to aggressive behavior (Thinking Critically) The violence-viewing effect stems from several factors, including of observed aggression and the tendency of prolonged exposure to violence to viewers. Objective 7-14: Discuss the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling Children will model positive, or, behaviors Children will also model negative, or, behaviors. This may help explain why parents might have children. However, factors may also be involved Children in developed countries spend more time than they spend in school Compared with the real world, television depicts a much higher percentage of crimes as being in nature (Thinking Critically) Correlational studies (link/ do not link) watching television violence with violent behavior (Thinking Critically) The more hours children spend watching violent programs, the more at risk they are for and as teens and adults (Thinking Critically) Correlation does not prove Most researchers believe that