Psychology Study Guide Chapter 7

Transcription

1 Psychology Study Guide Chapter 7 Learning I the process of acquiring new knowledge and You learn by experience Learn to predict events that we already like/don t like noticing events or sensations that happen first Actions have consequences See what others do Learning by association 2 stimuli tend to occur together in a sequence Actions associated with pleasant or results Perceive them to be linked Types of learning Operant conditioning changing behavior due to the consequences Classical conditioning learning to like 2 stimuli in a way that helps us articulate an event to which we have a reaction Cognitive learning acquiring behaviors and stimulation through observation and information rather than by direct acceptance Classical conditioning After repeated occurrences two stimuli occurring in sequence we associate those stimuli with each other Result our mental response so the stimulus can now be triggered by the new stimulus that comes before it When one happens we expect and or react to the other that comes after it See lighting means that we expect to hear the thunder Operant conditioning (reinforcement) Child associates response (behavior) with consequences Child wants to repeat behavior saying please which were followed with a desirable result, cookies Child learns to avoid behaviors, yelling give me, which followed with sad results, taking away the cookies Cognitive learning Refers to accepting new behaviors and information instantly rather than having direct experience Cognitive learning occurs Observing events and the behaviors of others Using language to acquire information about events replicated by others Behaviorism Skinner studied the utopia Term used ty Watson, a proponent of classical conditioning as well as Skinner leading in research in operant conditioning Abby Carroll 1

2 Both experts believed mental life was much less important than behavior as a foundation for psychological science Bothe foresaw applications in controlling human behavior Ivan Pavlov While studying the relation in dogs he found that salivation from eating food was mentally triggered by what should have been natural stimuli Seeing the food or the dish Hearing footsteps or seeing the person Before conditioning Neutral stimulus A stimulus that does not rigger a response Unconditioned stimulus and response A stimulus which triggers a response naturally, before/without any conditioning During conditioning Neutral stimulus repeatedly presented with unconditioned stimulus After conditioning Neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus Neutral stimulus and conditioned stimulus are the same NR and the CR are the same Higher order conditioning Turning and NS into a CS by associating it with another CS Acquisition Refers to initial stage of learning/conditioning What gets acquired Association between neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus How can we tell when acquisition has occurred UR gets triggered by CS Timing for association to be acquired NS needs to be repeatedly appear before unconditioned stimulus about a ½ second before in most cases (bell) comes before (food) Acquisition and extinction Strength of a CR grows with conditioning Extinction refers to the diminishing of a conditional response if the US (food) stops appearing with the CS (bell) the CR decreases Spontaneous recovery Return of the CR After a CR (salivation) has been conditioned and the extinguished Following a rest period presenting the tone alone might lead to a spontaneous recovery (a return of the conditioned response despite a lack of further conditioning) Abby Carroll 2

3 If the CS (tone) is again presented repeatedly without as the US the CR becomes extinct again Generalization and discrimination Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs to drool when rubbed and they also drooled when scratched Generalization refer to the tendency to have conditioned responses triggered by related stimuli (more) Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs to drool at bells of a certain pitch, slightly different pitches do not trigger the drooling Discrimination refers to the learned ability to only respond to a specific stimuli preventing generalization (less) Ivan Pavlov s legacy Insights about conditioning in general It occurs in all creatures It is related to biological drives and responses John B. Watson and classical conditioning Plying with fear 9 month old little albert was not afraid of rats John B. Watson and Rosalie clanged steel bars when the rat was presented to albert After conditioning he had a natural fear of rats Operant conditioning Involves adjusting to the consequences of our adjustors to the consequences of our behaviors so we can easily learn to do more of what works and less of what doesn t An act of chosen behavior (responses is followed by a reward or a punishment feedback from the environment Result Reinforced behavior was more likely to be tied again Punished behavior is less likely to be chosen in the future Operant vs. classical (both are associative learning) Classical Respondent behavior reflexive automatic reactions for example fear or craving Reactions are unconditioned stimuli associated with neutral (then unconditioned stimuli) Operant Operant behavior chosen behaviors which operate on the environment Behaviors become associated with consequences which punish (decrease) or reinforce (increase) operant behavior Process conditioning Experimental (neutral) stimulus repeatedly proceeds the respondent behavior and eventually triggers the behavior Abby Carroll 3

4 Experimental (consequence) stimuli stimulus repeatedly follows operant behavior eventually punishes or reinforces behavior Thorndike s law of effect Thorndike placed cats in a puzzle box they were rewarded with food and freedom when they solved the puzzle Thorndike noted that the cats took less time to escape after repeated trials and rewards Law of effect states that the behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behavior followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Operant chamber (skinner) Methods studying condition (Pavlov and skinner) Operant chamber (skinner box) allowed detailed tracking of rates of behavior charge in response to different rates of reinforcement Reinforcement Often refers to any feedback from the environment that makes a behavior more likely to occur Positive (adding) reinforcement adding something desirable (ex: warmth) Negative reinforcement: ending something unpleasant (ex: the cold) Shaping behavior When a creature is not likely to randomly preform exactly the behavior you are trying to teach you can reward them for any behavior that comes close to the desired behavior Cycle mutual reinforcement Children with temper tantrums when frustrated may get positively reinforced for this behavior when their parents occasionally respond by giving into the child s tantrum Results in stronger more frequent tantrums Parents who occasionally give into tantrums may get negatively reinforced when the child responds by ending the tantrums Parents giving in behavior strengthened (give in sooner and more often) Discrimination Refers to the ability to become more and more specific in what situations trigger a response Shaping can increase discrimination if reinforcement only comes from a certain discriminative stimuli Dogs rats spiders etc. are trained to find specific smells Pigeons seals and manatees respond to specific shapes colors and categories Stuff If we repeatedly introduce a neural stimulus before reinforce the stimulus acquired that power to be used as a reinforce A primary reinforce is a stimulus that meets a basic need otherwise is intrinsically desirable such as food sex fun attention or power Abby Carroll 4

5 Secondary/conditioned reinforce a stimulus such as rectangle paper with numbers on it (money) which has become associated with a primary reinforce (money buys food and builds power) Respond to delayed reinforces Humans have the ability to link a consequence to a behavior even if they aren t linked sequentially in time the piece of paper (money) can be a delayed reinforce and paid a month later yet sill reinforcing if we link it to our performance Delaying gratification is a skill related to impulse control enables longer term goal setting How often reinforce BF Skinner experimented with the effects of giving reinforcements in different patterns or schedules to determine what worked best to establish and maintain a target behavior In conditioned reinforcement (reward after the target every time) the subject acquires the desired behavior quickly In partial/intermittent reinforcement rewards (rewards pat of the tie) the target behavior takes longer to be acquired established but persists longer without the reward Intermittent reinforcement Fixed interval schedule: reward every hour Variable interval schedule: reward after a challenging/random amount of time passes Fixed ratio: reward every 5 targeted behaviors Variable ratio schedule: reward after a randomly chosen instance of the target behavior Operant effect Punishments have the opposite effect of reinforcement these consequences make the target behavior less likely to occur in the future Positive punishment is to add something pleasant/aversive Negative punishment to take away something that is pleasant or desired MINUS what is the negative here Positive does not mean it is good/desirable and negative does not mean that it is bad or undesirable Punishment is effective when Best in natural setting when we encounter punishing consequences from actions Effective when we try to artificially create punishing consequences for others choices These work best when consequences happen as they do in nature Severity of punishment is not as helpful as making the punishments immediate and certain Problems with physical punishment Punished behaviors may restart when the punishment is over, learning is not listening Instead of learning behaviors the child may teach to discriminate among the situation and avoid those which punishment might occur Instead of behaviors child might learn attitude of fear or hatred which can interfere with learning this can generalize to fear/hatred of an adult or man settings Abby Carroll 5

6 Physical punishment models aggression and control as a method of dealing with problems Other Punishing focuses on what not to do, which does not guide people to a desired behavior Even if undesirable behaviors do stop another problem behavior may emerge that serves the same purpose, especially if no replacement behaviors are target and reinforced In order to teach desired behavior reinforce what right more than what I wrong Rephrasing Positive punishment: play video games not piano so I can yell at you Negative punishment: avoid practice I turn off your game Negative reinforcement: stop bugging you when you practice Positive reinforcement: after practice we shall play a game Types of consequences Positive Stimuli Negative Stimuli Outcome Positive reinforcement Candy Negative reinforcing Stop yelling Strengthens target behavior Do chores Positive punishment (spanked) Negative punishment No cell phone Reduces target behavior Cursing BF Skinners legacy BF Skinner review Modify behavior through consequences Behavior is influences by emotional feedback not thoughts and feelings Should intentionally create consequences to shape the behaviors of others Humanity improves though conscious reinforcement of positive punishment of bad behavior Critique Leaves out value in structure/modeling Adult humans have the ability to think about making choices and plans Natural consequences are more justifiable than manipulative ones Humanity improves through free choice acquitted by wisdom consciousness and responsibility Apply operant conditioning School: skinner proposes a machine that will reinforce students correct responses allowing for different rates and difference in learning goals Sports: improve must in shaping approach in which they are reinforced for performance that comes closer and closer to the target skill Work: pay as a function of performance Abby Carroll 6

7 Parenting Reward small improvements towards behavior works better than expecting complete success and works better than punishing the problem behaviors Giving into temper tantrums in the short term, but increases them in the long run Self-improvement Reward yourself for steps you take toward goals as you establish good habits then make your rewards farther apart Contrasting types of conditioning Classical Associating events and stimuli with each other Involuntary automatic reactions NS linked to CS repeatedly presenting NS before US CR decreases when CS I repeatedly presented alone Extinguished CR starts again after a rest period when CR is triggered by stimuli similar CS Distinguishing differences between CS and NS not linked to US Operant Associating chosen behaviors with result events Voluntary actions resulting Behavior is associated with punishment/reinforcement Target behavior decreases when reinforcement stops Extinguished response starts again after onset (no reward) response behavior similar to the reinforcement behavior Distinguishing what will get a reward and what will not Biology in conditioning Classical conditioning Easier to lean associations that make sense for survival Food aversions can be acquired even if the UR does not immediately follow NS when acquiring food aversions during pregnancy/illness body associates nausea with whatever was eaten Operant conditioning Encounters biological tendencies and limits that are difficult to override Cognitive process Classical Conditioned responses can alter attitudes and even when we know the change is caused by conditioning However knowing that our reactions are caused by conditioning it gives us the option of mentally breaking the association Higher order conditioning involves some cognition Operant Abby Carroll 7

8 In fixed internal reinforcements animals do more target behaviors and responses around the time that the reward is more likely as if expecting the reward Expectation as a cognitive skill is even more evident in the ability of humans to respond to delayed reinforces (paychecks) Higher order conditioning can be enabled with cognition (money = indirect reward = value) Humans can set behavior goals for self and others and plan their own reinforcement Latent learning Rats appear to form cognitive maps, learn maze just wandering with no cheese to reinforce their learning Latent learning refers to skills or knowledge gained form experience but not apparent in behavior until rewards are given Learning, rewards, motivation Intrinsic motivation desire to perform a behavior well for its own sake. Reward is internalized as a feeling of satisfaction Extrinsic motivation refers to doing a behavior to receive rewards from others Intrinsic motivation can be prevented by using continuous reinforcement Mandatory behavior = few rewards as possible, and fade rewards over time Learning by observation Observational learning watching what happens when other people do a behavior and learning from their experience Skills required: mirroring being able to picture ourselves doing the same action and cognition noticing consequences and associations Modeling: behaviors of others serve as a model an example of how to respond to a situation we may try this model regardless of reinforcement Vicarious conditioning: experiences individually through others vicarious reinforcement and punishment means our errors are affected as we see others get consequences for their behaviors Mirroring in brain Watch others doing / feeling something neurons fire in patterns that would fire if we were doing the action or having the feelings ourselves Neurons are referred to mirror neurons and they fire only to reflect actions or feelings of others Mirroring to imitation Humans are prone to spontaneous imitation of both behaviors and emotions (emotional cognition) Include over imitating, that is copying adult behaviors that have no function and not reward Children with autism are less likely to cognitively mirror and less likely to follow someone else s gaze as a neurotypical toddler Mirroring plus vicarious reinforcement Abby Carroll 8

9 Mirroring enables observational learning, we cognitively practice a behavior just by watching I If you combine this with vicarious reinforcement we are even more likely to get imitation Pro-social effects observational learning Pro-social behavior refers to actions which benefit others contribute to groups and follow moral codes and social norms Parents trying to teach the behavior through lectures but it may be taught best through modeling especially if kids can see benefits of behavior to oneself or others Antisocial effects observational learning Antisocial behavior actions that are harmful to individuals and society Children who witness violence in their homes but are not physically harmful themselves may have violence but they still may become violent more often than the average child Perhaps a result of the bobo doll effect under stress we do what has been modeled for us Media models of violence Research shows that watching media violence leads to increased aggression (fights) and reduced pro-social behavior (helping an injured person) Violence viewing affect might be explained by imitation and also desocialization towards others Abby Carroll 9