SELF-EFFICACY, ADAPTATION, AND ADJUSTMENT THEORY, RESEARCH, AND APPLICA TION

Transcription

1 SELF-EFFICACY, ADAPTATION, AND ADJUSTMENT THEORY, RESEARCH, AND APPLICA TION

2 THE PLENUM SERIES IN SOCIAL/CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY Series Editor: C. R. Snyder University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas Current Volumes in this Series: AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR Current Perspectives Edited by L. Rowell Huesmann DESIRE FOR CONTROL Personality, Social, and Clinical Perspectives Jerry M. Burger THE ECOLOGY OF AGGRESSION Arnold P. Goldstein EFFICACY, AGENCY, AND SELF-ESTEEM Edited by Michael H. Kernis HUMAN LEARNED HELPLESSNESS A Coping Perspective Mario Mikulincer PATHOLOGICAL SELF-CRITICISM Assessment and Treatment Raymond M. Bergner PROCRASTINATION AND TASK AVOIDANCE Theory, Research, and Treatment Joseph R. Ferrari, Judith L. Johnson, and William G. McCown SELF-EFFICACY, ADAPTATION, AND ADJUSTMENT Theory, Research, and Application Edited by James E. Maddux SELF-ESTEEM The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard Edited by Roy F. Baumeister THE SELF-KNOWER A Hero under Control Robert A. Wicklund and Martina Eckert A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.

3 SELF-EFFICACY, ADAPTATION, AND ADJUSTMENT THEORY, RESEARCH, AND APPLICATION EDITED BY JAMES E. MADDUX George Mason University Fairfax, Virginia SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

4 LIbrary of Congress CatalogIng-In-PublIcatIon Data Self-effIcacy. adaptation; and adjustment : theory. research. and application / edited by James E. Maddux. p. cm. -- (The Plenum series In social/clinical psychology) Includes bibliographical references and Index. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Adjustment disorders. 2. Self-efficacy. 3. Adaptability (Psychology) 4. Adjustment (Psychology) I. Series. [ONLM: 1. Adaptation. Psychological. 2. Volition. 3. Self Concept. 4. Internal-External Control. 5. Mental 0lsorders -therapy. 6. Health Behavior. BF 637.S38 S RC S87S dc20 ONLM/DLC for L1brary of Congress CIP ISBN Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher

5 CONTRIBUTORS ALBERT BANDURA, Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, California NANCY BETZ, Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio VIRGINIA BLAIR, Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia ANGELA BOYKIN, Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia LAWRENCE BRAWLEY, Department of Kinesiology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1 SHIRLEY BROWN, Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey CARLO C. DICLEMENTE, Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, Texas CRAIG K. EWART, School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland SCOTT FAIRHURST, Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, Texas GAIL HACKETT, Division of Psychology in Education, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona IRVING KIRSCH, Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut v

6 vi CONTRIBUTORS JOHN LEWIS, Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia JAMES E. MADDUX, Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia LISA J. MEIER, Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia ANN O'LEARY, Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey CHRISTOPHER PETERSON, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan NANCY PIOTROWSKI, Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, Texas DALE M. SCHUNK, Department of Educational Studies, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana S. LLOYD WILLIAMS, Department of Psychology, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania STEVEN ZACCARO, Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia MICHELLE ZAZANIS, Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia 22030

7 PREFACE Since the publication of Albert Bandura's landmark 1977 Psychological Review article "Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavior Change," the term "self-efficacy" has become ubiquitous in psychology and related fields. Hundreds of articles on self-efficacy have been published in journals devoted to the subfields of psychology-including social, personality, clinical, health, and industrial! organizational-and in the related fields of public health, medicine, nursing, and business administration. Some of these articles have tested various aspects of self-efficacy theory, while others have examined the application of self-efficacy theory to various practical problems, and others have simply mentioned selfefficacy somewhere in the introduction or discussion, as if trying to hitch a ride on a passing bandwagon. Keeping up with this growing body of literature-not to mention the literature on other topics relevant to perceived competence and control-can be a full-time job. This volume offers some relief to overwhelmed researchers and scientifically oriented practitioners (clinical and otherwise) by providing reviews of the research on most of the most important topics concerned with the relationship between self-efficacy and adaptation and adjustment. Although more than a sampler of self-efficacy research, this volume is not a handbook on self-efficacy. The list of topics is selective, not exhaustive. The initial chapter list included about two dozen topics. My familiarity with the research on self-efficacy suggested at that time that there were a number of topics that would be of interest to researchers and practitioners, but that simply had not been the subject of a sufficient number of empirical studies to warrant chapter-length treatment. In the intervening years, several of the topics on the initial list have been given vii

8 viii PREFACE sufficient attention to warrant their inclusion were I drawing up the list today. Perhaps a second edition some time in the future will fill the gaps left by this volume. Also, as is always the case with edited volumes, several topics included in the final plan for the book were, for various reasons, later withdrawn. I especially regret the omission of chapters on pain control and organizational and management issues. Unforeseeable circumstances in their lives made it necessary for the authors of these chapters to withdraw reluctantly from the project. Their contributions are missed, and I hope all is well with them now. The title of this volume reflects the two major assumptions that guided its development and the writing of the individual chapters. The first is that beliefs about personal control and mastery are essential for psychological adaptation and adjustment. In this volume, psychological adaptation and adjustment are defined broadly and go beyond the traditional clinical notion of the absence of mental disorder or dysfunction. Effective adaptation and sound psychological adjustment also require good physical health and effective functioning in the major life domains of work (for adults) and school (for children). Chapter 2 discusses this first assumption in detail, and the other chapters deal with specific aspects of adaptation and adjustment. The second and more general assumption is that theory, research, and application (clinical and otherwise) are inextricably linked, an assumption that also guides the series in which this volume appears. Thus, this book is intended for both the researcher concerned with basic issues in social cognition (especially the self and self-regulation) and for the practitioner interested in remaining informed about the empirical foundations of psychological interventions. Although surveys suggest that the scientific practitioner is a breed rarer than most of us wish (Cohen, Sargent, & Sechrest, 1986; Morrow-Bradley & Elliot, 1986), I hope this volume will convince a few skeptical practitioners that a theory well-grounded in research can provide useful guidelines for designing effective interventions for the clinic, the classroom, and daily life. This volume is organized into five sections. Part I offers an introduction to self-efficacy theory and research and discusses some important conceptual issues. Part II describes applications in clinical psychology; Part III, applications in health psychology; and Part Iv, various other applications. Part V consists of commentary chapters by Irving Kirsch, Albert Bandura, and me. The introductory chapter in Part I provides an overview of selfefficacy theory and a review of research on several important general theoretical issues. The chapter also attempts to make some connections between self-efficacy theory and related constructs concerned with per-

9 PREFACE ix sonal control and mastery. To avoid unnecessary redundancy, I asked the other contributors to not include in their chapters lengthy introductions to self-efficacy theory. These chapters, therefore, do not provide overviews of self-efficacy theory that would be found at the beginning of journal articles or chapters on self-efficacy that have appeared in other volumes not devoted specifically to self-efficacy theory. For this reason, readers not familiar with self-efficacy theory should read the introductory chapter before the chapters on specific applications. I also hope that readers familiar with self-efficacy will find the introductory chapter to be a useful review of general conceptual issues. Parts II and III reflect the fact that most of the research conducted by psychologists on the application of self-efficacy theory to problems of adjustment has been concerned with either traditional "clinical" disorders or "mental health" (e.g., anxiety, depression) or topics from health psychology (e.g., prevention, stress). However, the field called "clinical psychology" has become increasingly difficult to define over the past two decades. As we have learned more about the generality of psychological change processes, the relationship between normal development and maladaptation, and the biological basis of behavioral and emotional problems, the boundaries between clinical psychology and other subfields have become more and more blurred. In particular, because psychological and medical theorists, researchers, and practitioners have come to acknowledge the close relationship between physical health and psychological well-being, the line between clinical and health psychology has become fuzzy at best. Thus, this division is made in this volume merely to provide an organizational scheme and is not an endorsement of the traditional dichotomy between mental health/illness and physical health/illness. In fact, the partitioning of this book into sections called "clinical" and otherwise is done largely for convenience and is not an endorsement of the traditional and rigid boundaries between subfields of psychology or the traditional distinction between so-called "clinical" and "nonclinical" problems and populations. As discussed in Chapter 2, the social cognitive approach that provides the conceptual foundation for this volume rejects the partitioning of human behavior into "healthy" and "dysfunctional" categories. Nonetheless, the problems of adaptation and adjustment discussed in Part II-anxiety, depression, and various addictive behavior problems (smoking, alcoholism, drug abuse, and eating disorders)-fall within the realm of traditional" clinical" problems and are among the most commonly encountered in traditional clinical settings. In fact, Bandura's initial studies of self-efficacy were conducted with individuals complaining of fear and avoidance behavior that would probably meet the criteria for clinical phobic disorders.

10 x PREFACE In Part II, Chapter 2 presents a general social cognitive approach to understanding adjustment and problems of adjustment and a more specific approach based on self-efficacy theory and research. Thus, the reader is encouraged to begin with Chapter 2. Chapters 3, 4, and 5 then present theory and research on the use of self-efficacy in understanding anxiety and phobic disorders, depression, and addictive behaviors, respectively. Several topics that do not fit into either of these two major categoriescareer and vocational choice, education and instruction, and collective efficacy-have been placed together in a section of "other applications." This appellation is not intended to imply that these topics are more peripheral or less important than those included in the clinical and health sections. Few decisions have as great an impact on psychological adjustment and well-being as one's choice of vocation or career. Few experiences have as great an impact on the development of a child's personal competence and control beliefs as his or her academic successes and failures. And few issues are more important to the development of a healthy and effective society than our shared beliefs about our ability to get things done collectively, whether in businesses, charitable organizations, or governments. Part V contains three commentary chapters. In the first, Irving Kirsch, rather than commenting on each individual chapter, addresses an important conceptual issue-the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectancies. Albert Bandura responds with a commentary addressing the conceptual issues raised by Kirsch. My closing brief commentary is an attempt to find common ground on the major issues on which Kirsch and Bandura seem to be in strong disagreement. I asked the contributing authors to use the writing of their chapters as an opportunity for not only presenting reviews of their work and the relevant work of other people, but also for helping to set an agenda for future research on their specific topics. I think they have succeeded well in this regard. I think they also have succeeded in presenting their material in a clear, succinct, and lively manner. I am especially pleased with the attention they devoted to practical applications. They made my job as editor easier than I expected. I am grateful for their efforts, their cooperation, and their willingness to conform to some of my editorial idiosyncracies. I am also grateful to Irving Kirsch and Albert Bandura for taking time from their other many projects to prepare their commentary chapters. I am also grateful to my friend and colleague Lawrence Brawley at the University of Waterloo, Angela Boykin and John Lewis of George Mason University's clinical program, and one former student, Dr. Lisa Meierone of the finest scientist-practitioners with whom I have worked in almost 15 years in clinical training programs. Without their help, I would never have been able to complete my own chapters in addition to serving as

11 PREFACE xi editor. I am especially grateful to Larry for agreeing to join me as coauthor of the "self-efficacy and healthy behavior" chapter halfway through the writing of it, after I had been struggling with it for many months. Rick Snyder, the editor of this series, has been a helpful guide throughout this project and gave me the encouragement I needed to tum a brief "idea". letter into a full prospectus. Four people in the Department of Psychology at George Mason University deserve special mention for the support they gave largely just by being my friends: Susanne Denham, John Riskind, June Tangney, and Steve Zaccaro. I'm lucky to have colleagues who are both fine scholars and terrific people. Finally, lowe a special "thanks" to Albert Bandura, the intellectual "godfather" of this project. His work serves as the foundation for almost every sentence of every chapter. In addition, a number of the contributors have worked with him personally. I wish I could say I was among them, for I have admired the man's work since I took my first psychology course in Largely because of the Bandura and Walters "Bobo doll" studies, I became a social learning theorist at age 19. My second epiphany came in the summer of 1977, at the end of my first year of clinical training, when I read the 1977 Psychological Review article. Thoreau once said, "How many a man has dated a new era in his life from the reading of a book!" My new era began with the reading of that article. That in our occasional correspondence we are "AI" and "Jim" is something the 19-year-old that remains in me still finds a little hard to believe. Washington, D.C. JAMESE. MADDUX REFERENCES Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, Cohen, H., Sargent, M. M., & Sechrest, L. B. (1986). Use of psychotherapy research by professional psychologists. American Psychologist, 41, Morrow-Bradley, c., & Elliot, R. (1986). Utilization of psychotherapy research by practicing psychotherapists. American Psychologist, 34,

12 CONTENTS Chapter 1 PART 1. Self-Efficacy Theory: An Introduction James E. Maddux INTRODUCTION Social Cognitive Theory... 4 Social Cognitive Theory and Subfields of Psychology... 6 Comparisons with Other Theories... 6 Self-Efficacy Theory... 7 Related Concepts of Mastery, Control, and Competence Summary Concluding Comments References Chapter 2 PART II. ApPUCATIONS IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY Self-Efficacy and Adjustment: Basic Principles and Issues Jame E. Maddux and John Lewis Social Cognitive View of Psychological Adjustment Self-Efficacy, Adaptation, and Adjustment Self-Efficacy and Processes of Change xiii 37

13 xiv CONTENTS Strategies for Enhancing Self-Efficacy Summary References Chapter 3 Self-Efficacy and Anxiety and Phobic Disorders S. Lloyd Williams The Meaning of Anxiety The Failure of Anxiety Theory Self-Efficacy Theory Effects of Self-Efficacy Judgments Self-Efficacy and Treatment of Anxiety Disorders Future Direction References Chapter 4 Self-Efficacy and Addictive Behaviors 109 Carlo C. DiClemente, Scott K. Fairhurst, and Nancy A. Piotrowski Applying Self-Efficacy to Addictions: Fits and Misfits Self-Efficacy and Smoking Behavior Self-Efficacy and Alcoholism Treatment Self-Efficacy and Drug Abuse Self-Efficacy and Eating Disorders The Future of Self-Efficacy in the Addictive Behaviors The Contribution and Promise of Self-Efficacy with the Addictive Behaviors References Chapter 5 Self-Efficacy and Depression 143 James E. Maddux and Lisa J. Meier Self-Efficacy Theory of Depression Self-Efficacy and Mood: Covariation and Cause Outcome Expectancies and Depression

14 CONTENTS xv Theoretical Issues Summary and Future Directions References Chapter 6 PART III. APPLICATIONS IN HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY Self-Efficacy and Healthy Behavior: Prevention, Promotion, and Detection James E. Maddux, Lawrence Brawley, and Angela Boykin Types of Health Behavior: Prevention, Promotion, and Detection 174 Self-Efficacy in Models of Health Behavior Common Theoretical Elements Self-Efficacy and Habit Toward an Integrated Model Summary References Chapter 7 Self-Efficacy and Recovery from Heart Attack: Implications for a Social-Cognitive Analysis of Exercise and Emotion Craig K. Ewart Recovery after Acute Myocardial Infarction Self-Efficacy and Recovery Self-Efficacy and Psychological Responses to Exercise in Healthy Adults Do Heart Rate and Performance Changes Mediate Emotional Responses to Aerobic Exercise?. "" Conclusion References Chapter 8 Self-Efficacy and the Physiological Stress Response Ann O'Leary and Shirley Brown Introduction Overview of Physiological Mechanisms

15 xvi CONTENTS Theoretical Background Evidence for Self-Efficacy Effects on Stress Physiology Discussion and Future Directions References Chapter 9 PART IV. OrHER ApPLICATIONS Self-Efficacy and Career Choice and Development Gail Hackett and Nancy Betz Self-Efficacy and Choice Behavior Self-Efficacy and Academic Achievement and Persistence Self-Efficacy and Career Decision-Making Processes Sources of Career Self-Efficacy..., Summary of Research Findings Implications for Future Research References Chapter 10 Self-Efficacy and Education and Instruction Dale M. Schunk Self-Efficacy Theory Factors Affecting Self-Efficacy Predictive Utility of Self-Efficacy Future Directions References "'" 300 Chapter 11 Collective Efficacy Steven Zaccaro, Virginia Blair, Christopher Peterson, and Michelle Zazanis Definition and Measurement of Collective Efficacy Antecedents and Consequences of Collective Efficacy Summary and Implications References

16 CONTENTS xvii Chapter 12 PART V. COMMENTARY Self-Efficacy and Outcome Expectancy: A Concluding Commentary Irving Kirsch Subtypes of Outcome Expectancy and Their Relation to Self-Efficacy Task Locus of Control as a Moderator Variable Subtypes of Self-Efficacy The Importance of Subjective Responses Fuzzy Boundaries and Conceptual Overlap- A Final Cautionary Note References Chapter 13 On Rectifying Conceptual Ecumemism Albert Bandura References Chapter 14 Looking for Common Ground: A Comment on Kirsch and Bandura James E. Maddux Types of Outcome Expectancy Types of Self-Efficacy Response Expectancies and Anxiety Outcomes and Attainment Markers Index