I. Logical Argument (argument) appeals to reason and intellect.

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1 Page 1 of 5 Argument strategies for manipulating others to agree with your opinion, premise or idea; i.e. to convince others. Argumentative writing has a different motivation from expository writing, in that not only does it share and explain information and ideas, but it can also ask readers to choose one side of an issue or take a particular action. I. Logical Argument (argument) appeals to reason and intellect. A. Two common reasoning techniques are: 1. Induction the process of arriving at general principles from particular facts or instances. 2. Deduction the process of reasoning from general claims to specific instance. B. Evidence is the cornerstone of all reasoning which consists of facts, statistical information, examples, and expert testimony. Effective evidence must be: 1. Sufficient enough evidence should be given to lend credibility and avoid hasty generalizations from inadequate proof. It is an error to give too much as well as too little. 2. Representative evidence must be typical and believable to lead to a reasonable conclusion. 3. Relevant evidence should have obvious relation to the assertion made. 4. Accurate evidence must be reliable and proven without distortion or misrepresentation. 5. Qualified define the limitations of the evidence rather than making sweeping inflexible statements. 6. Reliable comes from a trustworthy source. 7. Verifiable can be confirmed or proven by other means. C. Judgments are conclusions inferred from facts. Unlike opinions, judgments lend credibility to an argument because they result from careful reasoning. D. Testimony affirms or asserts facts. A person who had had direct experience (an eyewitness) or who has developed expertise in a subject (an expert witness) can provide testimony based on fact, judgment, or both. Both kinds of testimony can constitute powerful evidence; however, each has its limitations, and each type of testimony can be abused. 1. Eyewitness asked to report facts as they understand them. Eyewitness testimony provides authenticity. An eyewitness is not always trustworthy. Eyewitness testimony can be distorted by faulty observation or biased opinion. An eyewitness account of

2 Page 2 of 5 an evening may be convincing, but it should not be used to draw parallels to unrelated events. 2. Expert Witness asked to study facts and render a judgment. Expert testimony provides authority. An expert witness is not infallible or always unbiased. Expert testimony, often difficult for the non-expert to challenge, can be disputed by other experts employing a different method of investigation. Expert credentials in one field, whatever eminence they convey, do not automatically carry over to other (even related) fields. E. As you collect your evidence, be careful to identify and record its source. Your readers will want to know where you found the information important to your argument. If you cannot identify your source, your reader may question your knowledge ability. If your information comes from dubious sources, your readers may doubt your credibility. Identify information from printed, visual, verbal and electronic sources in the text of your paper even when using a documentation page. F. Avoid Logical Fallacies these errors in reasoning lead to false conclusions, judgments, and evidence: 1. Hasty Generalization generalizing from inadequate evidence; stereotyping is hasty generalization using prejudiced claims about a group of people. 2. Circular Reasoning restating in slightly different terms instead of proving a claim. 3. Argument to the Person attacking the person making the argument rather than the issues involved. 4. Guilt by Association attacking a person s ideas because of that person s interests or associates rather than the validity of the ideas. 5. Red Herring - sidetracking the issue by raising other, unrelated issues; intention is to distract or deflect attention from the real issue. 6, Slippery Slope assuming that one event will set off an unstoppable chain reaction. 7. Card-Stacking ignoring evidence supporting contradictions to your claim. 8. False analogy - making a comparison between things that are too dissimilar or irrelevant for the comparison to be useful. 9. Bandwagon - claiming that widespread popularity gives value or permission or truth; everybody does it! 10. Either/or offering only two alternatives when more exist. 11. Non sequitur drawing a conclusion from irrelevant data.

3 Page 3 of False Cause assuming that because two events are related in time, the first caused the second. 13. False Authority - citing the opinion of a person who has no expertise about the subject. 14. Self-contradiction using two premises that cannot both be true. 15. Out-of-context distorting an idea or fact by separating it from the material surrounding it. 16. Appeal to ignorance assuming that an argument is valid simply because there is no evidence on the other side of the issue. 17. Ambiguity & equivocation using expressions or terms that are not clear because they have more than one meaning. II. Persuasive Argument (persuasion) appeals to the emotions rather than the intellect and thus can be highly effective in motivating people; however, most of these techniques are coupled with logical fallacies and used to negatively manipulate consumers, voters, and other large groups. A. Devices of Persuasion: 1. Appeal to a need for trustworthiness 2. Appeal to a sense of authority/knowledgeability 3. Appeal to a desire for fairness/sense of injustice 4. Appeal to a sense of gain/greed 5. Appeal to the glamour of adventure/risk 6. Appeal to basic human sexuality 7. Use flattery 8. Use testimony by famous person/effective stereotype B. To persuade audiences successfully, you must make them want to believe or act. When people are forced to accept beliefs, or change behaviors, they may soon abandon them. Actions done unwillingly are usually done inefficiently and without any sense of reward or accomplishment. Consider your audience s needs and desires. C. Maslow s Hierarchy of Motive Needs: 1. Physiological Needs for food, drink, sleep, and sex; basic functions for survival of the body. 2. Safety Needs for a perception of security, stability, protection from harm or injury, structure, order, law, predictability, and freedom from fear and chaos. 3. Belongingness and Love Needs for warm affection with spouse, children, parents, and close friends; feeling a part of social groups; acceptance and approval.

4 Page 4 of 5 4. Esteem Needs for self esteem based on personal achievement, mastery, competence, confidence, freedom and independence; and the esteem of others (reputation, prestige, recognition, status). 5. Self-actualization Needs for self-fulfillment; becoming what you potentially can be; actualizing your capabilities; being true to your essential nature (what you can be, you must be!) D. Common Motivational Clusters: 1. Affiliation Motives include the desire to belong to a group or be well-liked or accepted. 2. Achievement Motives related to the intrinsic or extrinsic desire for success, adventure, creativity, and personal enjoyment. 3. Power Motives concern primarily the desire to exert influence over others. E. Common Patterns of Development for Argument 1. Monroe s Motivated Sequence a. Attention Step create interest and desire b. Need Step develop the problem by analyzing components and relating to the individual s interests, goals, or desires; prove a problem does exist. c. Satisfaction Step propose a plan of action that will alleviate the problem and satisfy the relevant individual or group. d. Visualization Step depict the plan in action; show the dream; paint the picture. e. Action Step call for personal commitments and deeds; 3 clear, specific, simple actions to take now. 2. Point-by-point Pattern a. Introduction b. The overall problem: identify and demonstrate c. One part of the problem: solution, evidence, feasibility d. Second part of the problem: solution, evidence, feasibility e. Third part of problem: solution, evidence, feasibility f. Conclusion: summary, implementation, call to action

5 Page 5 of 5 3. Alternatives Pattern a. Introduction b. The problem: identify and demonstrate c. Alternative solution one: what it is and why it is not satisfactory d. Alternative solution two: what it is and why it is not satisfactory e. Alternative solution three: what it is and why it will work best; evidence, feasibility f. Conclusion: summary, implementation, call to action