Argumentation & Persuasion Manual Hmong American Peace Academy

Transcription

1 Name Period Argumentation & Persuasion Manual Hmong American Peace Academy Overview Scholars will be challenged to develop, clarify, write, and deliver arguments so that, when they leave high school, they will be prepared to thoughtfully and articulately defend their worldview. This unit will focus on constructing rational, supported arguments and using those arguments to fairly persuade an audience. Scholars will develop classic arguments, support those arguments with relevant evidence, and deliver arguments persuasively and logically. Unit Topics Arguments Rhetorical Appeals: Ethos, Pathos, Logos Controversy Complications & Implications Logical Reasoning Structures Logical Fallacies Formal Argumentation College Writing 11

2 Appendix A - The Rhetorical Appeals: Ethos, Pathos, & Logos Whenever you read an argument you must ask yourself, Is this persuasive? If so, why? And to whom? There are many ways to appeal to an audience. Among them are appealing to logos, ethos, and pathos. These appeals are identifiable in almost all arguments. Appeal to Logos Appeal to Ethos Appeal to Pathos Keywords: Keywords: Keyword: Definition: the argument itself; the the author uses; evidence Definition: how an author builds & Definition: or passages an author uses to activate Types of Logos Appeals Types of Ethos Appeals Types of Pathos Appeals Theories / scientific Author s profession / Indicated meanings or background/ publication (because ) Appearing, Definitions fair minded, knowledgeable Factual data & Conceding to opposition Quotations from where appropriate & authorities Morally / ethically Expert opinions Appropriate language for Examples (real life examples) audience and subject Personal anecdotes Correct Professional format loaded language Vivid Emotional examples Anecdotes, testimonies, or narratives about emotional experiences or events language Emotional tone (humor, sarcasm, disappointment, excitement, etc.) Effect on the Audience The rhetorical appeal evokes a cognitive, rational response. Readers get a sense of, Oh, that or Hmm, that really doesn t prove anything. How to talk about it The author appeals to logos by defining relevant terms and then supports his claim with numerous citations from authorities. The author s use of statistics and expert testimony are very convincing logos appeals. The rhetorical appeal helps readers see the author as reliable, trustworthy, competent, and credible. The reader might the author or his/her views. Through his use of scientific terminology, the author builds his ethos by demonstrating expertise. The author s ethos is effectively developed as readers see that he is sympathetic to the struggles minorities face. The rhetorical appeal evokes an response. They are persuaded by this strong emotion. (usually evoking fear, sympathy, empathy, anger...) When referencing 9/11, the author is appealing to pathos. Here, he is eliciting both sadness and anger from his readers. The author s description of the child with cancer was a very persuasive appeal to pathos. 2

3 Appendix B - Identifying Ethos, Pathos, & Logos Directions: For each of the following advertisements, determine which rhetorical appeal is the strongest Strongest Appeal: Strongest Appeal: Strongest Appeal: Strongest Appeal: Strongest Appeal: Strongest Appeal: Strongest Appeal: Strongest Appeal: Strongest Appeal: 3

4 Appendix C: Complications & Implications ANI Chart Issue: Around 1884, three men and a young boy were stranded at sea on a small emergency boat after they were forced to abandon their ship because of a storm. On the 18th day, having no food for the previous seven days and no water for the previous five, one of the men suggested they draw straws to decide which man should give up his life for the sustenance of the others on the raft (i.e. cannibalism). Controversial Question: 1. Affirmative Negative Implication & Complications Controversial Question: 1. Affirmative Negative Implication & Complications

5 Appendix D: Five Common Types of Reasoning Causal Reasoning: Suggests a time-relationship between events. One event or thing causes the other to happen. When A happens, B results. Ex: 1. Cigarette smoking causes cancer. Logic Tests: 1. Is the (alleged) cause relevant to the (alleged) effect? Are there other potential causes? Reasoning by Sign: Infers relationships or correlations between two variables that points to the conclusion. Signs describe a situation. When A exists, B also exists. Ex: 1. Where there s smoke, there s fire. Logic Tests: 1. Is the sign consistent? Do the signs point primarily to one conclusion? Reasoning by Example: Consists of inferring conclusions from specific cases. Statistics and survey data are often cited. Ex: 1. Rock stars do care. Look at USA for Africa and LiveAid. Logic Tests: 1. Is there a number of relevant examples? Are negative examples noncritical? Reasoning by Analogy: Comparing two cases and saying that what is true in one case is true in the other, assuming some fundamental sameness. Ex: 1. National health care works in Japan; it will work in the United States. Logic Test: 1. Are the cases similar enough to each other? Reasoning by Authority: The credibility and expertise of a source warrants acceptance of a claim. Ex: 1. The EPA says that acid rain will increase three fold by Tests: 1. Is the source qualified? In the relevant field? Is the source weakened by biased language or self-interest? 5

6 Appendix E: Logical Fallacies Definition: A logical fallacy is an or in reasoning that makes an argument invalid. Fallacies of Relevance These the subject being argued. Fallacy Definition Example Appeal to Emotion Appeal to Ignorance False Authority Ad Hominmen - Straw Man Red Herring 6

7 Fallacies of Presumption These contain rather than real facts. Fallacy Definition Example Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question) False Dilemma False Cause Hasty Generalization Fallacies of Clarity These contain Fallacy Definition Example Vagueness Ambiguity: Equivocation Loaded Language 7

8 Appendix F: Sample Fallacy-Filled Illogical Essay Directions: Reread the following essay carefully and: 1. Identify the author's main point--the claim. Star it and write "claim" in the margin. Identify at least three different reasons the author gives for why this claim is true. Bracket these and write "reason" in the margin. 3. Circle any facts, evidence, or specific data given to support the claim and write "evidence" in the margin. 4. Find and underline three or more logical fallacies and write the type of logical fallacy in the margin. A Stand Against Tailgating Every tailgater will cruise three to five feet from another car's bumper just to pass them and come to a halt at the red light. Because it is so common to meet a tailgater on the road, even the most careful driver pulls onto the road with a certain anxiety for what may come. Driving is a complex responsibility and although there are many ways drivers disobey the rules of the road, tailgating is one of the most dangerous everyday habits which can be easily repaired through awareness and relaxation. To understand how tailgating can cause volatile behavior from other drivers, one must first understand tailgating. In 2011, 60 percent of drivers reported being tailgated by another car (Harding, 3). Nearly three years later to this present day, the tailgating rate has surely increased. There is significant evidence that drivers are ten times as likely to crash if they drive within 15 feet of the car in front of them; especially if the driver is between the ages of 18 and 30, male, and drinks coffee more than twice a day. To prevent tailgating, one must be sure to avoid all of the aforementioned circumstances. It is imperative that people do not tailgate to avoid colossal fines as well as the birth of another aggressive driver: the victim of this tailgation. Fortunately, tailgating does not encourage faster driving in other drivers who are accosted by a tailgater; tailgating only causes frustration and agony in those who must deal with aggressive drivers. Tailgating sparks rage and anger in the victim, and will certainly lead to other situations on the road, some of which can be deadly. Just think of your children driving on a road with these types of people behind the wheel of the other cars out there. While tailgating dates back to some time ago, culture and laws have the potential to stop this evil phenomenon. If it were a good thing, people would walk down the street with endless praise for it. When President Obama ran for reelection, people marched in favor of him. Nobody marches in favor of tailgating. Obama is the symbol of the nation. He endorses the good and denounces the bad in his speeches. Mr. Obama has never kissed a baby with tailgating tattooed on his forehead. College Writing 11