Persuasion Notes M. Jones 1

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1 Speaking to Persuade Persuasive Speaking: Persuasive Speaking Defined: The process of producing oral messages that: 1.) Increase personal commitment, 2.) Modify beliefs, attitudes, and values, or 3.) Induce action I. Types of Persuasive Speeches A. Speeches to Influence Thinking (Modifying an attitude or belief) B. Speeches to Motivate Action (Modifying an action) C. Forms of Persuasive Communication 1. Change in the degree to which something is evaluated as favorable or unfavorable 2. Creation of a new belief 3. Change in the strength in an existing belief 4. The elimination of an existing belief 5. A change in intentions to perform a behavior 6. A change in the performance of an action 7. Abstention from an action previously performed The Psychology of Persuasion: Persuasive speaking is the most challenging and complex. The speaker is seeking a degree of change and the receiver often meets that request for change with resistance. During the persuasion process, the sender and receiver are engaged in a mental dialogue in which the listener is constantly evaluating the message and comparing that message to his or her own ideas, values and overall frame of reference. Because it is rarely possible to persuade all listeners, the speaker must focus on the Target Audience, which is that portion of the audience the speaker most wants to persuade. All elements of ethical speaking must be considered while preparing and presenting a persuasive message. In addition, the speaker must establish and maintain credibility and use extensive evidence as part of effective persuasion. The persuader / advocate bears the burden of proof. It is up to the speaker to establish and prove the assertion that she or he is presenting. * The goal of persuasion is the attainment of commitment based on conviction. Persuasion usually meets with resistance; therefore have a strong goal/target in mind. D. Persuasion vs. Manipulation To persuade means to appeal to reason and understanding; it does not mean to coerce, compel, or intimidate. Persuasion involves convincing members of an audience to agree of their own free will (ethical use of logical reasoning) Manipulation - involves shrewd or devious management of facts for the speaker's own purpose. (Unethical distortion of information) Ethical Persuasion - The primary goal is to support your specific purpose with logical, consistent reasoning and arguments. E. Four Factors That Account For a Speech Being Persuasive 1. If its purpose or proposition is clear, supportable, and reasonable 2. If the material within the speech makes maximum use of the logical factors involved. 3. If it is organized to adapt to the listeners' interests and needs 4. If it is delivered with conviction F. Components of Persuasion 1. Symbols 2. Senders and receivers 3. Message content 4. The interactants' self-presentations 5. The situation of context where persuasion occurs 6. The channels (non-verbal, verbal, visual) 7. The society and culture that influence the interactants' communication expectations G. Pivotal Questions to Ask in Topic Selection 1. How important is the topic to the audience? 2. How knowledgeable is the audience about the topic? 3. What is the prevailing audience attitude toward the topic? H. Four Ethical Standards for Argumentation 1. The Research Responsibility - the responsibility to research the proposition thoroughly to know truth. 2. The Common-Good Responsibility - the responsibility to dedicate efforts to the welfare of the society. (While research may not provide the answers in every instance of conflicting values, it will at least help you to better understand the values or policies in conflict.) Persuasion Notes M. Jones 1

2 3. The Reasoning Responsibility - the responsibility to be rational (Take responsibility for the form and content of the message. Follow the rules of communication) 4. The Social Code Responsibility - the responsibility to observe the rules of free speech in a democratic society. (Direct criticism and refutation toward the reasoning and proof, not the person.) I. Three Types of Questions That Give Rise to Persuasion. 1. Question of Fact: The speaker is trying to establish the truth of falsity of an assertion. Most questions of fact are organized topically. 2. Question of Value: Questions the worth, rightness, morality and so forth of an idea or action. The speaker must justify the claim by defining the terms and establishing the measurement standards and then show how her or his proposal meets those standards. Most questions of value are organized topically. 3. Question of Policy: Questions about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken. There are two types of speeches on policy questions. a. Speeches to gain passive agreement (to convince) b. Speeches to gain immediate action (to actuate) In analyzing a question of policy, the speaker must face three issues: Need - Is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy (the speaker has the Burden of Proof to prove that the change is needed.) Plan - What is the plan for change that the speaker is proposing? Practicality - Will the speaker's plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems? What are the benefits of accepting the plan? Questions of policy can be organized in problem-solution, problem-cause-solution, comparative advantages, or Monroe's Motivated Sequence formats. II. Patterns of Organization A. Monroe s Motivated Sequence (MMS) 1. Attention (Introduction/Give a reason to listen) 2. Need (Identify a problem) a. Statement b. Illustration c. Ramification d. Pointing 3. Satisfaction (Your proposal for a solution to the problem) a. Statement b. Explanation c. Theoretical Demonstration d. Practical Experience 4. Visualization (The benefits of following your proposal) Positive, negative, or contrast 5. Action Detailed steps to follow as a result of hearing the message B. Problem-Solution Pattern (Action) - Two main parts: The first shows existence and seriousness of a problem and the second presents a workable solution to the problem. Used in speeches to convince, inspire, actuate C. Statement-of-Reasons Pattern D. Comparative-Advantage Pattern III. Sample Persuasive Speech See textbook Persuasion Notes M. Jones 2

3 Persuasive Strategies I. Knowing Your Audience A. Analyze Listeners B. Use a Persuasion Scale C. Plan Strategy II. Building Credibility A. Explain your Competence B. Be Accurate C. Show Your Open-Mindedness D. Show Common Ground with Your Audience III. Providing Evidence IV. Using Sound Reasoning A. Deduction B. Induction C. Fallacies in Reasoning V. Appealing to Motivations A. Some Common Motivations B. How to Motivate an Audience VI. Arousing Emotions Persuasive Strategies I. Knowing Your Audience A. Analyze Listeners B. Use a Persuasion Scale C. Plan Strategy II. Building Credibility (Refer to Notes on Credibility) A. Explain your Competence B. Be Accurate C. Show Your Open-Mindedness D. Show Common Ground with Your Audience III. Providing Evidence A. Tests of Evidence: 1. Is the evidence accurate? 2. Is the evidence recent/up-to-date? 3. Is the evidence typical? B. Choose evidence from reliable, reputable sources C. Provide a variety of evidence D. Use a vivid personal narrative whenever possible E. Tips for Using Evidence: 1. Use Specific Evidence. State the evidence in terms that will relate to the audience. Incorporate statistical information whenever possible to quantity the evidence. Statistics increase the impact of evidence. 2. Use Novel Evidence. Use evidence that is new to your audience. Novel evidence helps maintain interest. 3. Use Evidence from Credible Sources. Evidence taken from well-known and credible sources is often more persuasive. The listeners have a degree of trust for credible sources. 4. Make Clear the Point of Your Evidence. Be sure the evidence selected relates directly to the claim being made. Explain it in terms that the audience can understand. If necessary, compare the information to something that the audience members may have experienced. 5. When Using Evidence, Make Your Claim First, And then Provide the Supporting Materials. By knowing where you are going with the information, the audience is better able to follow the reasoning of your message. IV. Using Sound Reasoning Reasoning using logic to draw conclusions from evidence A. Deduction reasoning from a generalization to a specific conclusion 1. The Power of a Syllogism (a deductive scheme consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and an conclusion) 2. How to Use a Syllogism a. Putting your audience s reasoning into a syllogism helps you plan your persuasive strategy b. Putting your own thoughts into a syllogism helps you create a persuasive structure B. Induction- reasoning from specific evidence to a general conclusion 1. The Usefulness of Induction 2. How to Construct an Inductive Argument a. Ask a question b. Answer the question by collecting as much specific evidence as possible c. Reach a conclusion based on the evidence Persuasion Notes M. Jones 3

4 3. When to Use Inductive Reasoning a. Consider using inductive reasoning when the audience is likely to react to your central idea with skepticism or hostility. b. Use inductive reasoning when you wish to show the drama of discovery C. Fallacies in Reasoning 1. Hasty Generalization a conclusion that is based on inadequate evidence and is too broad to be fair. 2. Red Herring diverting listeners from the real issue to an unrelated matter 3. Attach on a Person (argumentum ad hominem) criticizing an opponent rather than the opponent s argument 4. Casual / False Cause assuming that because two events are related in time, the first caused the second. 5. Building on an Unproven Assumption treating an opinion that is open to question as if it were already proved. 6. False Analogy creating a comparison that is exaggerated or erroneous 7. Either-Or Fallacy presenting only two alternatives when in fact more exist 8. Straw Man a weak opponent or dubious argument set up so that it can be easily defeated 9. Bandwagon Accepting a belief or behavior because everyone else is doing it. 10. Appeal to misplaced authority Using individuals who are not connected to the issue as sources. 11. Non Sequitur Using an unrelated issue to make a point V. Appealing to Motivations Motivations the impulses and needs that stimulate a person to act in a certain way. What is Motivation? Motivation is the human mobilization of physical and psychological energy in order to fulfill needs, drives, desires, and goals. (Persuasion: An Interactive approach; O'Donnell and Kable p. 147) Understanding Motivation: Can you motivate someone? The answer is an emphatic "NO"! Motivation is something that comes from within the individual to prompt or incite an action. Motivation is a function of individual will. We do things because the outcome is appealing to us and serves as an incentive. People are motivated by unmet needs, and those needs differ from individual to individual. People's needs are determined by their unique set of circumstances, their value and belief systems, family background, education, work experience, and their individual personality styles. What Influences Motivation? Psychological Foundations: (4 items) Personality Predispositions: The total psychological makeup of the individual. Includes environmental factors and heredity Group Membership: We reflect our affiliation to family, culture, subculture, etc. The conception an individual has of his or her total group probable mode personality more than the group itself. Role: Determined by both the ways a person views or evaluates her or himself and the ways in which society and its subgroups expect that person to behave. Personality develops according to this role. We are motivated by appeals to our specific chosen role in life. Situation: Events in life influence personality development. A. Some Common Motivations 1. Love and esteem 2. Health 3. Safety 4. Success 5. Financial security 6. Self-Improvement 7. Recreational pleasure 8. Altruism (the desire to help others) Persuasion Notes M. Jones 4

5 (From the March 1998 edition of JHSC, a publication from Carswell-Thomsom Publications.) 1. Positive thoughts (self-fulfilled prophesy) 2. Enjoyment 3. Feeling Important 4. Success 5. Personal benefit (WIIFM) 6. Clarity - understanding the task - clear communication Eight Motives Used in Advertising (From Vance Packard - The Hidden Persuaders, 1964) The need for: 1. Emotional security 2. Reassurance of worth 3. Ego gratification 4. Creative outlets 5. Love objects 6. Sense of power 7. Sense of roots 8. Immortality - legacy B. How to Motivate an Audience Motivation comes from within The first thing to keep in mind is that we cannot motivate others. Since motivation comes from within - people motivate themselves. What a speaker can do is to create the conditions for people to motivate themselves. This is done using motivational appeals. 1. Focus on listeners needs, rather than your own 2. Appeal to more than one motivation 3. Determine the strongest motivational needs 4. Anticipate conflicting needs Motivational Appeals Motivational appeals are persuasive techniques to arouse or appeal to a need, thus creating tension within the receiver if that need is not being met. (Persuasion: An Interactive Approach; O'Donnell and Kable p. 147) Targets of Persuasion Affective, Cognitive, and Behavioral changes 1. Affective - attitudinal - attitudes are relatively enduring - they range from favorable to unfavorable - the goal is a change in degree. 2. Cognitive - change in belief - the goal is a degree of certainty 3. Behavioral - performance of some action or the abstention from action - the goal is the most desired result (Additional target) 4. Behavioral Intent - an observational change with a promise for future action. The more you target, the more you persuade. Persuasive Appeals Responses to Persuasion Ethos - Behavioral - reaction to the personal characteristics of the speaker. Based on behavior: past and present Pathos - Affective - putting the audience into a certain frame of mind (feelings/emotions) Logos - Cognitive - proof, or apparent proof, provided by the words in the speech itself - (Logical thought) Mythos - Appeal to the association or implied meaning of symbols, etc. (ex: The American Flag = Freedom) VI. Arousing Emotions There are strong ethical standards to consider when using emotional appeals. They are strong motivators for change if used appropriately and effectively.. They work best for questions of value and policy. They are usually ineffective on questions of fact. Persuasion Notes M. Jones 5

6 A. Always combine emotional appeals with rational appeals B. Know how to use fear C. Use emotional appeals ethically D. Develop the emotional appeals inherent in some pieces of evidence Additional Guidelines 1. Make sure they are appropriate the issue, the audience, and the focus of your message 2. Never substitute emotional appeals for evidence and reasoning. 3. Always build the persuasive message on a firm foundation of facts and logic. Types of Motivational Appeals (use depends on the goal of the persuasion) 1. Sanctions - motivation through the use of rewards/punishments (How will the receiver benefit from modifying an attitude, belief, or action or how receivers will benefit from maintaining their current status) Emotional Appeals: Both positive and negative emotions motivate: - Positive: hope, joy, pride, love - Negative: fear, envy, disgust, contempt Fear Appeals: we are exposed daily. Defined: Fear appeal: one that claims that harm will befall the persuadee or someone close to her or him if there is failure to adopt the end goal of the persuasion. Fear motivates protective behavior. Balance is important: A moderate level of fear leads to the greatest change of attitude/belief. Guidelines for using fear appeals: 1. Use and cite highly credible sources 2. Provide the audience with reasonable solutions A limited listing of Examples of Emotional Appeal targets: * Fear - of illness, disasters, physical harm, rejection, financial hardship * Compassion - for the disadvantages. The disabled, for battered women, children, animals * Pride - in country, family, culture, personal accomplishments * Anger - at terrorists, government, the abusive, violent offenders * Guilt - At not helping others, for being self-centered, for not making the effort to improve self * Reverence - for another person, for traditions, for religious beliefs Generating Emotional Appeals: 1. Use emotional language 2. Develop vivid example 3. Speak with sincerity and conviction Needs - Appeals to Human Motivations/Values (Belonging, self-esteem, self-awareness, or self-improvement.) Values are also important: i.e. work ethic, religious doctrine, etc.) McCelland's Three Need Theory (David McCelland, The Achieving Society, 1961) 1. Need for achievement (drive to excel to achieve in relation to a set of standards) 2. Need for power (the ability to make someone behave in a different way) 3. Need for affiliation (the desire for personal relationships) Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs (Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 1954) 1. Physiological/Survival bodily requirements, food, water, air, rest, reproduction 2. Safety /Security Security & protection, safety from attack, shelter, basic income 3. Social Affection & acceptance, love, friendship 4. Self-Esteem Internal factors: self respect, autonomy; external factors: status, recognition 5. Self-actualization Self-fulfillment, personal growth, self-awareness, knowledge, creativity Persuasion Notes M. Jones 6

7 Rationales - Appeals to reason through the use of evidence and support Applying Motivators to an Audience - Guidelines 1. Select main points, supporting material, and language that can engage your listeners' emotions. 2. Employ a variety of tactics. Consider your own "hot spots." Look at what motivates you but do not assume everyone has the same motivation. Do not force your own preference on others. 3. Demonstrate Rhetorical sensitivity: Involves effectively matching the message we are sending to the requirements of the receivers and the situation and context. Thinking about what should be said then thinking of an effective way to say it. 4. Relate your message to the values of your listeners and their culture(s) (Audience analysis and intelligent inference). Consider the priority/importance given to each value by different individuals. (Core values - central to the individual's self concept, Authority values - shared by groups and individuals important to that person, Peripheral values - incidental evaluations; easily made and/or changed.) 5. To be fair and ethical, respond to existing needs. Do not create a new or artificial sense of insecurity in you listeners if it is not warranted. 6. Clarify your goals 7. Adjust content based on audience attitude (Audience scale) Persuasion Notes M. Jones 7