CHAPTER 11 - GENDER. 1. Confirmatory bias - people note when others conform to stereotype as proof
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1 CHAPTER 11 - GENDER I. SEX STEREOTYPES A. Definition - general beliefs based on sex. 1. Masculine stereotype 2. Feminine stereotype B. Maintenance of stereotypes - 2 biases 1. Confirmatory bias - people note when others conform to stereotype as proof 2. Selective inattention - Inconsistencies ignored/explained Sex stereotypes are schemas that organize our thinking - often distort thinking & memory - easy to remember confirming examples & hard to remember contradictory ones C. Impact of stereotypes 1. Evaluate people more positively if consistent with stereotype 2. Men seen as able, women as giving effort for same male-typed achievement 3. Males denigrated if conform to female stereotype => Both sexes constrained to conform to stereotypes D. Origins of Stereotypes 1. Home - parents treat kids differently from birth 2. School teachers respond differentially 3. Peers - children intolerant of sex-inconsistent behavior
2 4. Media - extremes of sex-typed behavior E. Cross-cultural results 110 non-industrialized societies % Societies where pressure greater Attribute For Boys For Girls Nurturance Obedience Responsibility Achievement Self-reliance - first goal is for all children to behave ** - second goal is to socialize child to conform to sex stereotype II. SEX TYPING - identification with own sex A. Gender identity - knowledge of one s sex and realization that sex is unchanging 1. initially categorize on superficial characteristics 2. by age 3 categorize self accurately - but do not realize sex is permanent 3. by 5-7 realize sex is unchanging & have stable identity based on own sex B. Gender roles - beliefs about what the sexes are supposed to be like & do 1. Knowledge of stereotypes - by 2.5, some knowledge - by 10, complete knowledge 2. Adherence to stereotypes => more rigid at times when sex identification is more relevant C. Sex-typed behavior - favor activities typed for own sex 1. by months, prefer sex-typed toys mo = no opposite-sex toys
3 2. by 2 years for girls & 3 for boys, prefer same-sex playmates 3. Sex differences - boys adopt sex-typed behaviors & preferences quicker - girls more likely to retain cross-sex interests => boys = more pressure to conform 4. Stability of sex-typing - fairly stable from childhood to adulthood - but some flexibility B. Theories of Sex-Role Development 1. Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud) - social & biological factors - everyone is bisexual at birth - sexual identity = identification with same-sex parent 2. Biosocial Theory (Money & Ehrhardt) - biology channels development - via child s & others reactions 3. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, Mischel) Parents influence sex development - direct instruction - reinforcement & punishment - encourage sex-typed behavior by age 2 - observational learning - imitate same-sex models - reinforced for this imitation BUT - observation of same-sex models mostly happens after 6 4. Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Kohlberg) - sex-role development depends on cognitive development - children actively socialize themselves - 1 st establish stable gender identity - then seek models & information Role of developing cognitive abilities & child s motivation - encourage sex-role development at 6+ years BUT children show sex-typed behavior before they actively seek such information 5. Gender-Schema Theory cognitive (Martin & Halverson)
4 - children motivated to be consistent - self-socialize as soon as have basic gender identity (age 2-3) - role of gender schemas Integration - biosocial, social learning & cognitive approaches Biosocial - biology leads people to label children by sex & treat differently Social learning - sex-typing from others teaching & encouragement Cognitive - 2 theories - cognitive milestones & child s own desires aid sex-typing III. SEX DIFFERENCES IN SEXUALITY Kinsey s report (1948) - many long-held beliefs shown to be myths - some confirmation of prior beliefs Kinsey criticized for methodology - interviews with volunteers BUT, later studies have confirmed findings Oliver & Shibley Hyde - meta-analysis 1) Decreasing sex differences - more women reported premarital sex - more women reported masturbation 2) Continuing sex differences - men = more masturbation - men more permissive toward sex - men reported more homosexual sex - men lost virginity earlier, reported more frequent sex, more sexual partners
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