Title: Sex & Gender Specification: Sex and gender. Sex-role stereotypes. Androgyny and measuring androgyny including the Bem Sex Role Inventory.

Transcription

1 Title: Sex & Gender Specification: Sex and gender. Sex-role stereotypes. Androgyny and measuring androgyny including the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Q1 Define the term androgyny. (2 marks) When an individual is characterised by a combination of both masculine and feminine traits, for example, assertiveness and gentle. Q2 According to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory which of the following would you identify as male, female and neutral items? A Moody NEUTRAL B Tender FEMININE C Assertive MASCULINE D Childlike FEMININE E Strong Personality MASCULINE F Cheerful FEMININE G Theatrical NEUTRAL H Ambitious MASCULINE I Affectionate FEMININE J Analytical MASCULINE K Dominant MASCULINE L Conceited NEUTRAL M Gullible FEMININE N Unpredictable NEUTRAL Q3 Complete the table. Which of the following characteristics related to overall feminine, overall masculine and androgynous? 1 High masculinity and low femininity MASCULINE 2 High femininity and low masculinity FEMININE 3 High masculinity and high femininity ANDROGYNOUS Q4 Briefly explain how the Bem Sex-Role Inventory was developed. (4 marks) The BSRI was developed by asking 50 female and 50 male judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how desirable each trait would be for a man and woman. The highest scoring traits in each category became the 20 feminine and masculine traits in the BSRI. To ensure sounds levels of validity, the BSRI was distributed to 1000 students, and their results on the questionnaire were compared to students own description of their gender identity.

2 Q5 Outline and evaluate Bem s claim that androgynous individuals have better psychological health. (4 marks) Bem suggested that an androgynous personality was more beneficial than either masculinity or femininity. Bem argued that androgynous individuals are better equipped to deal with situations that demand either a masculine, feminine or androgynous character. This claim has been challenged in modern society because it is argued that in modern society the most beneficial gender identity to hold is one that is masculine. The traits that belong to a masculine personality (e.g. dominance) are argued to have a higher status within modern society and therefore are deemed to be the most suitable ones to possess. Q6 Complete the grid below by adding either evidence or an example. BSRI IS A VALID MEASUREMENT BSRI LACKS TEMPORAL VALIDITY The BSRI was given to 1000 students. The result from the BSRI broadly matched the students perceptions of their own gender identity. This provides evidence that the BSRI is a valid measure of gender identity. The BSRI is over 40 years old and as a result can be criticised for holding outdated views of gender which do not apply in the 21 st century. Q7 Complete the burger paragraph Complete the following burger paragraph by adding a point and explanation. Point Evidence/ Example Explain The BSRI was based on norms in America, so it could be argued that it is culturally biased, as each society creates its gender roles. For example, aggression may be a positive masculine trait in America but not in somewhere like Bhutan. There have been other scales created for other cultures, for example, the modified Japanese Masculine scale (JM) and the modified Japanese Feminine scale (JF). It can be concluded that the BSRI has provided an excellent platform from which other psychologists across the world have developed research evidence on androgyny.

3 Title: Sex & Gender Specification: Sex and gender. Sex-role stereotypes. Androgyny and measuring androgyny including the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Q1 Q2 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N Define the term androgyny. (2 marks) According to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory which of the following would you identify as male, female and neutral items? Moody Tender Assertive Childlike Strong Personality Cheerful Theatrical Ambitious Affectionate Analytical Dominant Conceited Gullible Unpredictable Complete the table. Which of the following characteristics related to overall Q3 feminine, overall masculine and androgynous? 1 High masculinity and low femininity 2 High femininity and low masculinity 3 High masculinity and high femininity Q4 Briefly explain how the Bem Sex-Role Inventory was developed. (4 marks)

4 Q5 Outline and evaluate Bem s claim that androgynous individuals have better psychological health. (4 marks) Q6 Explain Point Complete the grid below by adding either evidence or an example. BSRI IS A VALID MEASUREMENT BSRI LACKS TEMPORAL VALIDITY Q7 Complete the burger paragraph Complete the following burger paragraph by adding a point and explanation. Evidence/ Example The BSRI was based on norms in America, so it could be argued that it is culturally biased, as each society creates its gender roles.

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6 Title: Sex & Gender Specification: Sex and gender. Sex-role stereotypes. Androgyny and measuring androgyny including the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Q1 Which of the following are examples of a sex role stereotype? A Whether a person is genetically male or female B An individual who is both masculine and feminine C Women are more delicate and compassionate than men D Little boys that like to play with toy tools and cars Q2 A Match the key terms to definitions A collection of shared expectations within a social group regarding what women and men should behave. SEX ROLE STEREOTYPES B A combination of female and male characteristics ANDROGYNY D Whether a person is genetically male (XY) or female (XX). SEX An individual s sense of maleness or femaleness. This is a E psychological and social construct. Key Terms: Sex Role Stereotypes, Gender, Sex, Androgyny GENDER Q3 Masculine or feminine? Which of the following attributes would you classify as masculine or feminine? A Willing to take risks MASCULINE B Understanding FEMININE C Leadership ability MASCULINE D Makes decisions easily MASCULINE E Eager to soothe hurt feelings FEMININE The following is a possible exam question. Describe what is meant by the term Q4 androgyny. (4 marks) Using all of the key terms below, write an answer to the above exam question. Sandra Bem, Feminine Behaviours, Masculine Behaviours, Combination, Psychologically Healthy, Andro, Gyny Androgyny is a concept first introduced by Sandra Bem back in the 1970 s. The term androgyny has been created from a combination of andro which means male and gyny meaning female. This term refers to a combination of masculine and feminine behaviours. Bem suggested that it was psychologically healthy for individuals to possess a combination of masculine and feminine behaviours.

7 Q5 Sex and gender Look at the key terms below and identify which relate to sex and which relate to gender. Write the key terms into the appropriate column of the table. One of the terms fits both sex and gender. MASCULINITY SEX ROLE GENETICALLY XY GENETICALLY STEREOTYPE MALE CHROMOSOME FEMALE BSRI XX GENDER- CHROMOSOME NEUTRAL FEMININITY INTERSEX KLINEFELTERS SAME-SEX TURNERS SYNDROME ROLE MODELS SYNDROME TESTOSTERONE DELICACY ANDROGYNY GENDER DYSPHORIA MACHISMO SEX GENDER SEX AND GENDER Genetically Male Genetically Female XY Chromosome XX Chromosome Testosterone Intersex Klinefelter's Syndrome Turners Syndrome Same-Sex Role Model Femininity Masculinity Androgyny BEM Sex Role Inventory Sex Role Stereotype Delicacy Machismo Gender Neutral Gender Dysphoria Q6 Evaluation Read the evaluative paragraph below, then select an issue and write your own evaluative paragraph: Bem s sex role inventory lacks temporal validity. This refers to whether findings from a study hold true over time. The adjectives used in the BSRI are arguably out of date, having been selected a long time ago, in the 1970s. Evidence to support this criticism comes from research by Hoffman and Borders (2001), who discovered that a group of almost 400 undergraduates only rated 2 of the Bem inventory adjectives as masculine and feminine. This suggests that the inventory is no longer relevant to current attitudes regarding sex roles. Choose your issue: REAL WORLD RELIABILITY APPLICATION Write your evaluation here: VALIDITY RESPONSE BIAS ANOTHER ISSUE

8 Title: Sex & Gender Specification: Sex and gender. Sex-role stereotypes. Androgyny and measuring androgyny including the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Q1 A B C D Q2 A B D Which of the following are examples of a sex role stereotype? Whether a person is genetically male or female An individual who is both masculine and feminine Women are more delicate and compassionate than men Little boys that like to play with toy tools and cars Match the key terms to definitions A collection of shared expectations within a social group regarding what women and men should behave. A combination of female and male characteristics Whether a person is genetically male (XY) or female (XX). An individual s sense of maleness or femaleness. This is a E psychological and social construct. Key Terms: Sex Role Stereotypes, Gender, Sex, Androgyny Q3 Masculine or feminine? Which of the following attributes would you classify as masculine or feminine? A Willing to take risks B Understanding C Leadership ability D Makes decisions easily E Eager to soothe hurt feelings The following is a possible exam question. Describe what is meant by the term Q4 androgyny. (4 marks) Using all of the key terms below, write an answer to the above exam question. Sandra Bem, Feminine Behaviours, Masculine Behaviours, Combination, Psychologically Healthy, Andro, Gyny

9 Q5 Sex and gender Look at the key terms below and identify which relate to sex and which relate to gender. Write the key terms into the appropriate column of the table. One of the terms fits both sex and gender. SEX ROLE GENETICALLY XY GENETICALLY MASCULINITY STEREOTYPE MALE CHROMOSOME FEMALE XX GENDER- BSRI FEMININITY INTERSEX CHROMOSOME NEUTRAL KLINEFELTERS SAME-SEX TURNERS TESTOSTERONE DELICACY SYNDROME ROLE MODELS SYNDROME GENDER ANDROGYNY MACHISMO DYSPHORIA SEX GENDER SEX AND GENDER Q6 Evaluation Read the evaluative paragraph below, then select an issue and write your own evaluative paragraph: Bem s sex role inventory lacks temporal validity. This refers to whether findings from a study hold true over time. The adjectives used in the BSRI are arguably out of date, having been selected a long time ago, in the 1970s. Evidence to support this criticism comes from research by Hoffman and Borders (2001), who discovered that a group of almost 400 undergraduates only rated 2 of the Bem inventory adjectives as masculine and feminine. This suggests that the inventory is no longer relevant to current attitudes regarding sex roles. Choose your issue: REAL WORLD RELIABILITY APPLICATION Write your evaluation here: VALIDITY RESPONSE BIAS ANOTHER ISSUE

10 Title: Chromosomes and Hormones Part 1 Specification: The role of chromosomes and hormones (testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin) in sex and gender. Q1 Match the key terms to definitions A B C D E F G H An individual who isn t clearly male or female because their physical reproductive appearance doesn t mirror the norm. A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that can result in feelings of calmness. A hormone which is responsible for secondary sex characteristics e.g. facial hair. Individuals with this syndrome may appear less masculine due to reduced testosterone. The biological structure that contains all the genetic information for an individual. Chemicals that travel within the bloodstream affecting processes such as the stress response. A hormone which is responsible for the development of female secondary sex characteristics. A syndrome which occurs when a female has a single sex chromosome (XO), rather than the typical two (XX). INTERSEX OXYTOCIN TESTOSTERONE KLINEFELTER'S SYNDROME CHROMOSOMES HORMONES OESTROGEN TURNERS SYNDROME Key terms: Klinefelter's Syndrome, Oxytocin, Testosterone, Intersex, Chromosomes, Turners Syndrome, Hormones, Oestrogen Q2 Complete the two paragraphs below by adding in the missing words. TYPICAL CHROMOSOMES Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in nearly every cell. Within each chromosome are thousands of genes that contain information relating to our characteristics e.g. eye colour. One pair of the chromosomes are the sex chromosomes; for females, these would be XX (due to their shape), and for males, these would be XY. Our chromosomal sex usually determines our external and internal genitalia. The female-determining gene on the X chromosome means that female embryos will produce large quantities of oestrogen and this triggers the development of the female reproductive system. The gene SRY (sex-determining region Y) on the Y chromosome triggers the creation of testes and the male reproductive system and inhibits female anatomical structures developing in males. Key Terms: Chromosomes, Characteristics, 23, XY, XX, Females, Testes, Males, Genes ATYPICAL SEX CHROMOSOMES Turner syndrome occurs when the second sex chromosome is either completely or partly absent. It is a rare syndrome, affecting approximately 1 in 2,000 females from birth. Those with Turner s syndrome are born with a womb and vagina. However,

11 typical characteristics include the absence of monthly periods, a webbed neck and shorter than average height. Klinefelter syndrome occurs when there is an XXY chromosome structure. It is more common than Turner syndrome, but still only occurs in approximately 1 in 1,000 males. Those with Klinefelter snydrome are born with a penis. However, typical characteristics include lowered testosterone levels and consequently reduced facial hair. Infertility is also a common concern. Key terms: Klinefelter, Testosterone, XXY, Shorter, Infertility, Womb, Syndrome, Second, Turner Q3 Outline the role of hormones in sex and gender. (6 marks) Write an answer to the above question, using the template below to guide you. INTRODUCTION Hormones have a significant influence on gender development, the three key ones being testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin. TESTOSTERONE Testosterone is involved in the development of genitalia and is produced before a baby is born. During the years of puberty, a surge in testosterone enables the development of secondary sexual characteristics, such as deepening voice. Interestingly, research by Berenbaum and Bailey (2003) has discovered that prenatal exposure to large doses of testosterone can result in more tomboyish behaviour later. OESTROGEN Oestrogen, a female hormone has its greatest influence during puberty, enabling the development of secondary sexual characteristics e.g. breast development. OXYTOCIN Finally, oxytocin which is commonly known as the love hormone, creates feelings of calmness. This hormone also has a significant role to play in enabling milk to flow in a breastfeeding mother. Q4 Apply your knowledge Jessica is 14 years old. Her mother accompanied her to the Doctors, as she is worried about her development. Jessica is short for her age, and her breasts have not started to develop. While Jessica is doing fine at school and is very eloquent for a 14-year-old, her mother is becoming worried. The Doctor said that Jessica might have Turner s syndrome. Use your knowledge of Turner s Syndrome to explain why the Doctor made this diagnosis. (4 marks) Turner syndrome is caused by the lack of an X chromosome. Females with Turner syndrome do not develop normally at puberty but are usually of normal intelligence. The Doctor is likely to have reached this decision because Jessica is short and has no sign of developing secondary sex characteristics, which are hallmarks of Turner syndrome. The Doctor could also look out for other characteristics such as webbed neck and low set ears. However, he would need to conduct a chromosome test to reach a definitive diagnosis.

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13 Title: Chromosomes and Hormones Part 1 Specification: The role of chromosomes and hormones (testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin) in sex and gender. Q1 A B C D E F G H Match the key terms to definitions An individual who isn t clearly male or female because their physical reproductive appearance doesn t mirror the norm. A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that can result in feelings of calmness. A hormone which is responsible for secondary sex characteristics e.g. facial hair. Individuals with this syndrome may appear less masculine due to reduced testosterone. The biological structure that contains all the genetic information for an individual. Chemicals that travel within the bloodstream affecting processes such as the stress response. A hormone which is responsible for the development of female secondary sex characteristics. A syndrome which occurs when a female has a single sex chromosome (XO), rather than the typical two (XX). Key terms: Klinefelter's Syndrome, Oxytocin, Testosterone, Intersex, Chromosomes, Turners Syndrome, Hormones, Oestrogen Q2 Complete the two paragraphs below by adding in the missing words. TYPICAL CHROMOSOMES Humans have pairs of in nearly every cell. Within each chromosome are thousands of that contain information relating to our e.g. eye colour. One pair of the chromosomes are the sex chromosomes; for females, these would be (due to their shape), and for, these would be. Our chromosomal sex usually determines our external and internal genitalia. The female-determining gene on the X chromosome means that female embryos will produce large quantities of oestrogen and this triggers the development of the female reproductive system. The gene SRY (sex-determining region Y) on the Y chromosome triggers the creation of and the male reproductive system and inhibits female anatomical structures developing in males. Key Terms: Chromosomes, Characteristics, 23, XY, XX, Females, Testes, Males, Genes ATYPICAL SEX CHROMOSOMES syndrome occurs when the sex chromosome is either completely or partly absent. It is a rare, affecting

14 approximately 1 in 2,000 females from birth. Those with Turner s syndrome are born with a and vagina. However, typical characteristics include the absence of monthly periods, a webbed neck and than average height. syndrome occurs when there is an chromosome structure. It is more common than Turner syndrome, but still only occurs in approximately 1 in 1,000 males. Those with Klinefelter snydrome are born with a penis. However, typical characteristics include lowered levels and consequently reduced facial hair. is also a common concern. Key terms: Klinefelter, Testosterone, XXY, Shorter, Infertility, Womb, Syndrome, Second, Turner Q3 Outline the role of hormones in sex and gender. (6 marks) Write an answer to the above question, using the template below to guide you. INTRODUCTION Hormones have a significant influence on gender development, the three key ones being testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin. TESTOSTERONE OESTROGEN OXYTOCIN Q4 Apply your knowledge Jessica is 14 years old. Her mother accompanied her to the Doctors, as she is worried about her development. Jessica is short for her age, and her breasts have not started to develop. While Jessica is doing fine at school and is very eloquent for a 14-year-old, her mother is becoming worried. The Doctor said that Jessica might have Turner s syndrome. Use your knowledge of Turner s Syndrome to explain why the Doctor made this diagnosis. (4 marks)

15 Title: Chromosomes and Hormones Part 2 Specification: The role of chromosomes and hormones (testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin) in sex and gender. Q1 Match them up Match the abbreviations on the left with their meanings on the right. KEY TERM DEFINITION XX Normal female sex chromosomes XY XO XXY CAH AIS Androgen insensitivity syndrome Congenital adrenal hyperplasia Normal male sex chromosomes Sex chromosomes in Turner s Syndrome Sex chromosomes in Klinefelter s syndrome Q2 Describe which hormone is being outlined in the sentences below. Is it oxytocin, testosterone or oestrogen? DESCRIPTION This hormone is produced before a baby is born (prenatally) and affects the development of genitalia. This hormone is also known as the love hormone. Some individuals do not respond to this hormone, and in rare cases, external male genitalia may not develop. This hormone can influence brain development before birth and in later childhood. Berenbaum & Bailey (2003) discovered that females exposed to significantly large quantities of this hormone displayed more tomboyish behaviour. This hormone has an increasingly important role from puberty onwards, e.g. influencing the menstrual cycle. Recent research by Shi et al. (2015) has discovered that this hormone may cause smaller brain size. HORMONE TESTOSTERONE OXYTOCIN TESTOSTERONE TESTOSTERONE The effects of this hormone are weakened in males due to the presence of testosterone. A sudden increase in this hormone during puberty controls the development of facial hair. OESTROGEN OESTROGEN OXYTOCIN TESTOSTERONE This hormone is critical in enabling a mother to breastfeed. OXYTOCIN

16 Q3 Apply your knowledge Dominic is a 28-year-old male who looks different to his male friends. He is the tallest amongst his friends, has less facial hair and has recently been referred to a consultant for infertility investigations. Answer each of the following questions: What conditioning do you think Dominic is suffering from? Klinefelter s syndrome Justify your answer. Klinefelter syndrome occurs when a male has an extra X chromosome (XXY). Males with Klinefelter syndrome are genetically male and will often not realise they have the extra X. Boys affected tend to grow quicker than their peers and be taller than family patterns would predict. What other physical characteristics would you expect Dominic to have? The most serious physical symptoms can be infertility, smaller penis and testicles and enlarged breasts. What psychological characteristics would you expect Dominic to have? The most serious psychological symptoms tend to be lowered IQ and therefore learning difficulties, a lack of emotional maturity, and shyness. The symptoms vary case to case, and some sufferers are affected more than others. Q4 Issues and debates Explain how the case of David Reimer (Money and Ehrhardt, 1972) provides evidence that gender is determined by nature rather than nurture. (4 marks) John Money wanted to use the case of David Reimer to argue that nurture could override nature in gender development. An operation to circumcise David when he was born resulted in a tragic accident which resulted in most of his penis being burnt off. Money recommended that he have his penis and testes removed and then be raised as a girl (Brenda). Unfortunately, this wasn t a successful plan. When David reached teenage years, he felt compelled to change his gender and live his life as a man. David never overcame the psychological issues faced in his early years and tragically ended his life in This case failed to support the argument of Money, instead supporting the view that an individual s biological sex is more influential than nurture in determining an individual s gender. Despite being raised as a female, David was unable to overcome his biological (nature) characteristics. Extension: Do any of the other issues and debates apply to the case of David Reimer? Justify your answer. Possible answers include: idiographic approach the use of case studies; free will vs. determinism David was biologically determined to be male.

17 Title: Chromosomes and Hormones Part 2 Specification: The role of chromosomes and hormones (testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin) in sex and gender. Q1 Match them up Match the abbreviations on the left with their meanings on the right. KEY TERM DEFINITION XX Normal female sex chromosomes XY XO XXY CAH AIS Androgen insensitivity syndrome Congenital adrenal hyperplasia Normal male sex chromosomes Sex chromosomes in Turner s Syndrome Sex chromosomes in Klinefelter s syndrome Q2 Describe which hormone is being outlined in the sentences below. Is it oxytocin, testosterone or oestrogen? DESCRIPTION This hormone is produced before a baby is born (prenatally) and affects the development of genitalia. This hormone is also known as the love hormone. Some individuals do not respond to this hormone, and in rare cases, external male genitalia may not develop. This hormone can influence brain development before birth and in later childhood. Berenbaum & Bailey (2003) discovered that females exposed to significantly large quantities of this hormone displayed more tomboyish behaviour. This hormone has an increasingly important role from puberty onwards, e.g. influencing the menstrual cycle. Recent research by Shi et al. (2015) has discovered that this hormone may cause smaller brain size. The effects of this hormone are weakened in males due to the presence of testosterone. HORMONE A sudden increase in this hormone during puberty controls the development of facial hair. This hormone is critical in enabling a mother to breastfeed.

18 Q3 Apply your knowledge Dominic is a 28-year-old male who looks different to his male friends. He is the tallest amongst his friends, has less facial hair and has recently been referred to a consultant for infertility investigations. Answer each of the following questions: What conditioning do you think Dominic is suffering from? Justify your answer. What other physical characteristics would you expect Dominic to have? What psychological characteristics would you expect Dominic to have? Q4 Issues and debates Explain how the case of David Reimer (Money and Ehrhardt, 1972) provides evidence that gender is determined by nature rather than nurture. (4 marks) Extension: Do any of the other issues and debates apply to the case of David Reimer? Justify your answer.

19 Title: Cognitive Explanations Specification: Cognitive explanations of gender development, Kohlberg s theory, gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy; gender schema theory. Q1 A B C D E Match the key terms to definitions Labelling individuals by their appearance, e.g. boy or girl. Understanding that gender remains constant across situations. The ability to understand that changing the appearance of a substance or object does not alter the overall amount, volume or mass. Having the understanding that gender remains consistent over time. Explaining human behaviour in terms of thinking/thought processes. GENDER LABELLING GENDER CONSTANCY CONSERVATION GENDER STABILITY COGNITIVE THEORY A child at this stage would be unable to apply logic. Although PRE- F logic is present in this stage, it lacks internal consistency. OPERATIONAL Key terms: Pre-Operational, Gender Stability, Gender Labelling, Conservation, Gender Constancy, Cognitive Theory Q2 Gender labelling, gender stability or gender constancy? Read the following sentences/thought processes and decide which stage of Kohlberg s theory they belong to: gender labelling (1), gender stability (2) or gender constancy (3). A This stage occurs at around 2-3 years old. 1 B If a person is wearing a dress, then they must be a girl. 2 C Individuals are either, boys, girls, men or women. 1 D Gender remains consistent over time. 2 E At this stage, there is understanding that gender is constant across both time and situation. F Children in this stage are pre-operational. 1 G Learning gender appropriate behaviour begins here. 3 H Clothing/hairstyle form the basis of the child s gender judgement. 1 I Children at this stage are unable to understand that gender is consistent across situations. J This stage occurs at around six years old

20 K L At this stage, children understand that boys grow into men and girls grow into women. If an individual s appearance changes, so will their gender label e.g. if a man grows long hair, he must now be a girl. M This stage occurs at around four years old. 2 N Q3 If a male takes part in a female activity, they must have changed into a female. Briefly outline Kohlberg s cognitive theory of gender development. (4 marks) Kohlberg argued that physical changes in the brain cause changes/developments in the way we think. As we get older, we become more capable to think in an abstract manner. Kohlberg therefore believed that our understanding of gender was related to a child s age, with older children having more advanced cognitive abilities than younger children. He devised a 3-stage theory of gender development. Stage 1, gender labelling is where gender is focused on an individual s external appearance. Stage 2, known as gender stability, is where children begin to recognise that gender remains consistent across time and stage 3, known as gender constancy, is where children begin to realise that gender is constant across both time and situations. Q4 Evaluation Use the following study to write an evaluation paragraph for Kohlberg s theory. 1. Slaby and Frey (1975) provided evidence that children under the ages of 3 and 4 were unable to comprehend that gender remains stable over time, for example, struggling with questions such as were you a little girl or a little boy when you were a baby? and when you grow up will you be a mummy or a daddy? Point Evidence/ Example Explain A strength of Kohlberg s theory is that there is research support to confirm its validity as a stage theory of gender development. Slaby and Frey (1975) provided evidence that children under the ages of 3 and 4 were unable to comprehend that gender remains stable over time, for example, struggling with questions such as were you a little girl or a little boy when you were a baby? and when you grow up will you be a mummy or a daddy? Research such as this suggests that gender development is controlled by biological maturation, rather than environmental influence, as behavioural psychologists would argue

21 Title: Cognitive Explanations (Bonus Question) Q5 Apple your knowledge 3-year-old Sophie is visiting her Uncle at a family open day at the fire station where he works. On the drive home, she says when I grow up I m going to be a fireman like Uncle John. With reference to Sophie, explain what is meant by gender stability. (4 marks) Gender stability is the understanding that gender remains consistent over time, for example, that boys grow into men and girls grow into women. According to Kohlberg, it is not until a child is in stage 2 of his theory, at around age four that they can begin to understand this. Sophie is only three years old, and this could be why she doesn t yet understand that she will grow up as a woman and not a man, unlike her Uncle John.

22 Title: Cognitive Explanations Specification: Cognitive explanations of gender development, Kohlberg s theory, gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy; gender schema theory. Q1 A B C D E Match the key terms to definitions Labelling individuals by their appearance, e.g. boy or girl. Understanding that gender remains constant across situations. The ability to understand that changing the appearance of a substance or object does not alter the overall amount, volume or mass. Having the understanding that gender remains consistent over time. Explaining human behaviour in terms of thinking/thought processes. A child at this stage would be unable to apply logic. Although F logic is present in this stage, it lacks internal consistency. Key terms: Pre-Operational, Gender Stability, Gender Labelling, Conservation, Gender Constancy, Cognitive Theory Q2 Gender labelling, gender stability or gender constancy? Read the following sentences/thought processes and decide which stage of Kohlberg s theory they belong to: gender labelling (1), gender stability (2) or gender constancy (3). A B C D E F G This stage occurs at around 2-3 years old. If a person is wearing a dress, then they must be a girl. Individuals are either, boys, girls, men or women. Gender remains consistent over time. At this stage, there is understanding that gender is constant across both time and situation. Children in this stage are pre-operational. Learning gender appropriate behaviour begins here. H I J Clothing/hairstyle form the basis of the child s gender judgement. Children at this stage are unable to understand that gender is consistent across situations. This stage occurs at around six years old.

23 K L At this stage, children understand that boys grow into men and girls grow into women. If an individual s appearance changes, so will their gender label e.g. if a man grows long hair, he must now be a girl. M This stage occurs at around four years old. 2 N If a male takes part in a female activity, they must have changed into a female Explain Point Q4 Evaluation Use the following study to write an evaluation paragraph for Kohlberg s theory. 1. Slaby and Frey (1975) provided evidence that children under the ages of 3 and 4 were unable to comprehend that gender remains stable over time, for example, struggling with questions such as were you a little girl or a little boy when you were a baby? and when you grow up will you be a mummy or a daddy? Evidence/ Example Slaby and Frey (1975) provided evidence that children under the ages of 3 and 4 were unable to comprehend that gender remains stable over time, for example, struggling with questions such as were you a little girl or a little boy when you were a baby? and when you grow up will you be a mummy or a daddy? Q3 Briefly outline Kohlberg s cognitive theory of gender development. (4 marks)

24 Title: Cognitive Explanations (Bonus Question) Q5 Apple your knowledge 3-year-old Sophie is visiting her Uncle at a family open day at the fire station where he works. On the drive home, she says when I grow up I m going to be a fireman like Uncle John. With reference to Sophie, explain what is meant by gender stability. (4 marks)

25 Title: Gender Schema Theory Specification: Cognitive explanations of gender development, Kohlberg s theory, gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy; gender schema theory. 01 Match them up Match the key terms with the definitions below. Extension: Provide an example for each definition. KEY TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE A B C SCHEMAS INGROUP SCHEMAS GENDER SCHEMA A mental representation of the A schema on how to behave world. in a posh restaurant. A mental representation of the Girls might believe that group that a child identifies Girls are better than boys. with. A mental representation for gender. For example, the belief that boys become firefighters and girls become nurses. For example, men do the DIY Children s thoughts on gender D GENDER BELIEFS tasks and women do the appropriate behaviour. housework. Children s thoughts on gender appropriate behaviour A mental representation of the world A mental representation of gender A mental representation of the group that a child identifies with Identify two differences between Kohlberg s theory of Gender development and Q2 Gender Schema Theory. (4 marks) DIFFERENCE 1 Kohlberg believed that gender development doesn t begin until children have understood gender constancy. In comparison, Gender Schema Theory disagrees, claiming that children are capable of gathering information on gender, before gender constancy is achieved. DIFFERENCE 2 Unlike Kohlberg s theory of gender development, Gender Schema Theory considers the impact of gender schemas on later behaviour, for example how they can influence memory, where s Kohlberg s theory does not.

26 Q3 Describe what research into gender schema theory has found. (3 marks) Students could use studies such as Martin and Little (1990) and Martin and Halverson (1983). However the focus of the answer must be on the results/conclusion, as the question states has found. Martin and Halveson (1983) developed research to test their theory. They asked 5- and six-year-olds to look at pictures of children playing. Some were schemaconsistent, e.g. a girl playing with a doll and some were schema-inconsistent, e.g. a girl playing with a toy gun. After a week, it was found that the children had switched the schema-inconsistent images around and remembered, for example, a boy playing with a toy gun rather than a girl, rather than a boy playing with a doll. This lends support to the idea that children build gender appropriate schemas, as that is what their memories were based on. Q4 Evaluation Here is an evaluation paragraph providing support to Gender Schema Theory: Schema theory argues that gender schemas enable children to develop gender stereotypes. This would suggest that children will pay most attention to information that fits their gender schema and consequently remember it better. Evidence that this is the case comes from Martin and Halverson (1983), who discovered that when testing children s recall of pictures of people, those under six recalled more of the gender consistent images, in comparison to the gender inconsistent ones. For example, a male firefighter would be better remembered than a male nurse. This supports the claim that gender schemas contribute to the organisation of memory. After reading the above, write an evaluative paragraph for the following issue: Gender schemas can distort information. Point Evidence/ Example Explain The gender schemas that children possess could arguably lead them to distort information they come across. Evidence for this comes from the Martin and Halverson study which discovered that when children were shown schema inconsistent pictures (e.g. boy holding a doll), they would later report seeing a girl holding a doll. This is evidence that the schemas children possess can be so powerful that they can in fact influence the child s behaviour and potentially lead to the formation of (negative) stereotypes about males and females.

27 Title: Gender Schema Theory Specification: Cognitive explanations of gender development, Kohlberg s theory, gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy; gender schema theory Match them up Match the key terms with the definitions below. Extension: Provide an example for each definition. KEY TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE A SCHEMAS INGROUP B SCHEMAS GENDER C SCHEMA D GENDER BELIEFS Children s thoughts on gender appropriate behaviour A mental representation of the world A mental representation of gender A mental representation of the group that a child identifies with Identify two differences between Kohlberg s theory of Gender development and Q2 Gender Schema Theory. (4 marks) DIFFERENCE 1 DIFFERENCE

28 Q3 Describe what research into gender schema theory has found. (3 marks) Students could use studies such as Martin and Little (1990) and Martin and Halverson (1983). However the focus of the answer must be on the results/conclusion, as the question states has found. Explain Point Q4 Evaluation Here is an evaluation paragraph providing support to Gender Schema Theory: Schema theory argues that gender schemas enable children to develop gender stereotypes. This would suggest that children will pay most attention to information that fits their gender schema and consequently remember it better. Evidence that this is the case comes from Martin and Halverson (1983), who discovered that when testing children s recall of pictures of people, those under six recalled more of the gender consistent images, in comparison to the gender inconsistent ones. For example, a male firefighter would be better remembered than a male nurse. This supports the claim that gender schemas contribute to the organisation of memory. After reading the above, write an evaluative paragraph for the following issue: Gender schemas can distort information. Evidence/ Example

29 Title: Psychodynamic Explanations Specification: Psychodynamic explanation of gender development, Freud s psychoanalytic theory, Oedipus complex; Electra complex; identification and internalisation. Which stage of psychosexual development is the most relevant to gender Q1 development? (1 mark) A Oral B Anal C Phallic D Latency E Genital Q2 Match the key terms to the definitions During the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy until A they resolve this through identification with their mothers. B C D E When an individual wants to associate with a group or individual, and adapts their behaviour and/or attitude. A child in this phase has yet to develop their gender identity. Freud argued that the process of gender development is not one that an individual is consciously aware of. During phallic stage, boys are unconsciously jealous of their fathers, seeing them as rivals for their mother's love. They resolve this anxiety by identifying with their fathers. ELECTRA COMPLEX IDENTIFICATION PRE-PHALLIC UNCONSCIOUS PROCESS OEDIPUS COMPLEX F Redirecting an impulse onto a powerless target. DISPLACEMENT G A repressed anxiety experienced by boys as a result of their unconscious desires for their mothers. CASTRATION ANXIETY Occurs when an individual accepts the behaviours/attitudes H INTERNALISATION of another. Key Terms: Pre-Phallic, Internalisation, Electra Complex, Displacement, Unconscious Process, Castration Anxiety, Oedipus Complex, Identification. Q3 Outline a research study that supports the Psychodynamic explanation of gender development. (4 marks) Freud supported his theory with case studies, such as Little Hans. According to Freud, Hans wished his father was dead as a result of his unconscious desires for this mother. This led to a fear of castration, which Freud argued was evidenced by Han s phobia of horses. These anxieties, part of the Oedipus complex, weren t overcome

30 until Little Hans began to identify with his father, thus ending the castration anxiety. According to Freud, Little Hans provides support for the psychodynamic explanation of gender development, in particular, the idea of the Oedipus Complex. Explain how the research study that you have outlined in Q3 relates to gender Q4 development. (3 marks) Hint: Use the key terms in Q2 in your answer. Freud believed that gender development was an unconscious process, which for boys takes place during the Oedipus complex. According to Freud, when a boy resolves his anxieties within the Oedipus Complex, he is then able to identify with his father. This process of identification is key to gender development as it enables the boy to internalise the gender identity of his father and accept this as his own. Little Hans overcame his castration anxiety when he began to identify with his father and thus internalised the gender identity being male. Q5 Apply your knowledge At the local park, Harry witnessed Tom steal a football from a group of younger children. Harry says my dad says that stealing is wrong and I agree with him. With reference to the Oedipus Complex, explain why Harry agrees with his father. (2 marks) Harry agrees with his father that stealing is wrong because Harry has resolved his anxieties within the Oedipus complex. Harry clearly identifies with his father and has internalised his father s views on the moral issues with stealing. By identifying with his father Harry is able to develop his gender identity. Q6 Evaluation Freud s theory of gender development is strongly criticised on a number of issues. Explain how the following issues can be used to evaluate the psychodynamic explanation of gender development. ISSUE EXPLANATION Freud theories demonstrate a severe gender bias, in particular, an alpha bias, as Freud believe that women are GENDER BIAS inferior to men. Freud admitted that he didn t understand female gender development and the Electra Complex was an addition to his theory. Freud s reliance on case studies is problematic as we are unable to generalise the results to a wider population. CASE STUDIES Furthermore, the data collected in Freud s case studies was very subjective and mostly, in the case of Little Hans, based on reports from his father.

31 Title: Psychodynamic Explanations Specification: Psychodynamic explanation of gender development, Freud s psychoanalytic theory, Oedipus complex; Electra complex; identification and internalisation. Q1 A B C D E Which stage of psychosexual development is the most relevant to gender development? (1 mark) Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital Q2 Match the key terms to the definitions During the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy until A they resolve this through identification with their mothers. B C D E F G When an individual wants to associate with a group or individual, and adapts their behaviour and/or attitude. A child in this phase has yet to develop their gender identity. Freud argued that the process of gender development is not one that an individual is consciously aware of. During phallic stage, boys are unconsciously jealous of their fathers, seeing them as rivals for their mother's love. They resolve this anxiety by identifying with their fathers. Redirecting an impulse onto a powerless target. A repressed anxiety experienced by boys as a result of their unconscious desires for their mothers. Occurs when an individual accepts the behaviours/attitudes H of another. Key Terms: Pre-Phallic, Internalisation, Electra Complex, Displacement, Unconscious Process, Castration Anxiety, Oedipus Complex, Identification. Q3 Outline a research study that supports the Psychodynamic explanation of gender development. (4 marks)

32 Explain how the research study that you have outlined in Q3 relates to gender Q4 development. (3 marks) Hint: Use the key terms in Q2 in your answer. Q5 Apply your knowledge At the local park, Harry witnessed Tom steal a football from a group of younger children. Harry says my dad says that stealing is wrong and I agree with him. With reference to the Oedipus Complex, explain why Harry agrees with his father. (2 marks) Q6 Evaluation Freud s theory of gender development is strongly criticised on a number of issues. Explain how the following issues can be used to evaluate the psychodynamic explanation of gender development. ISSUE EXPLANATION GENDER BIAS STUDIES CASE

33 Title: Social Learning Theory & Culture Part 2 Social learning theory as applied to gender development. The influence of culture and media on gender roles. Q1 Match them up Match the four mediational processes with their definitions. MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES DEFINITION Attention Retention Motor Reproduction Motivation Q2 Match the key terms to the definitions. A B C D E Receiving a reward for a given behaviour. Our ability to performed the observed behaviour. The extent to which we notice a particular behaviour. After observing an individual, a person may copy their actions. Learning which occurs as a result of indirect reinforcement. This theory suggests that we learn behaviour through direct and indirect reinforcement. Children arguably learn gender development through employing this method in everyday life. Our ability to remember and store a particular behaviour. Our desire to perform the observed behaviour (often based on whether the behaviour was rewarded or not). DIRECT REINFORCEMENT IMITATION VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OBSERVATION From the models perspective, the demonstration of a F MODELLING behaviour that may be imitated. Key Terms: Vicarious Reinforcement, Self, Observation, Direct Reinforcement, Imitation. Social Learning Theory, Modelling Q3 A Which of the following are examples of direct reinforcement and which are indirect reinforcement? Make sure you can justify your answer. Dominic is in town with his dad and his uncle Tom. His dad helps an elderly lady with her shopping bags, and his uncle INDIRECT commends his gentlemanly behaviour.

34 B C Caroline witnesses her mum receive a compliment for her pretty lipstick. Bobby s dad praises him for scoring a goal at his school football match. INDIRECT DIRECT D E F G H Simon bench presses 100kg, and his male gym friends give him a round of applause. Stephanie observes her sister being rewarded with stickers for helping her mum tidy the kitchen after breakfast. Steven is at his brother s cricket presentation and witnesses his brother receive a cricketer of the year award. Emily s keyworker at preschool comments on how lovely she looks in her pink princess dress. George is watching his favourite programme bob the builder. Bob has built a stable block, and the other children applaud him for dong such a great job. DIRECT INDIRECT INDIRECT DIRECT INDIRECT Q4 Apply your knowledge Beverley has two children, Billy aged 3 and Laura aged 5. Billy often watches his dad playing rugby and Laura and her female friends love to pretend to play with their dolls. Billy often engages in rough and tumble play and Laura spends a lot of her time with dolls. Using the key terms below explain the gender differences between Billy and Laura s behaviour. (3 marks) Imitation/Imitating, Direct reinforcement, Indirect reinforcement Billy is arguably imitating the masculine behaviour of his dad and his rugby skills whereas Laura may be imitating the feminine play of her peers. When Billy observes his dad score in rugby, this could be an example of indirect reinforcement, if his dad wins a match. Laura may receive direct reinforcement in the form of praise from her nursery when she plays nicely with her dolls, which is why they both behave differently. Q5 Outline one research study that demonstrates the influence of social learning on gender development. (4 marks) Smith and Lloyd (1978)conducted research with 4-6-month-old babies. Regardless of their sex, they were dressed half the time in boy s clothes and half the time in girl s clothes. Adults were then observed interacting with the babies, and the babies that were assumed to be girls were offered a cuddly doll, and the babies that were assumed to be boys were offered a hammer shaped rattle. This is clear evidence for differential reinforcement, therefore lending support for Social Learning Theory.

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36 Title: Social Learning Theory & Culture Part 2 Social learning theory as applied to gender development. The influence of culture and media on gender roles. Q1 Match them up Match the four mediational processes with their definitions. MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES DEFINITION Attention Retention Motor Reproduction Motivation Q2 Match the key terms to the definitions. A B C D E Receiving a reward for a given behaviour. Our ability to performed the observed behaviour. The extent to which we notice a particular behaviour. After observing an individual, a person may copy their actions. Learning which occurs as a result of indirect reinforcement. This theory suggests that we learn behaviour through direct and indirect reinforcement. Children arguably learn gender development through employing this method in everyday life. Our ability to remember and store a particular behaviour. Our desire to perform the observed behaviour (often based on whether the behaviour was rewarded or not). From the models perspective, the demonstration of a F behaviour that may be imitated. Key Terms: Vicarious Reinforcement, Self, Observation, Direct Reinforcement, Imitation. Social Learning Theory, Modelling Q3 A Which of the following are examples of direct reinforcement and which are indirect reinforcement? Make sure you can justify your answer. Dominic is in town with his dad and his uncle Tom. His dad helps an elderly lady with her shopping bags, and his uncle commends his gentlemanly behaviour.