The Origin of Species

Transcription

1 Chapter 24. The Origin of Species Both in space and time, we seem to be brought somewhat near to that great fact that mystery of mysteries the first appearance of new beings on this Earth. Darwin 1

2 Essential Questions! How and why do new species originate? 2

3 What is a species?! Biological species concept " defined by Ernst Mayr " population whose members can interbreed & produce viable, fertile offspring " reproductively compatible 3

4 Biological species concept Eastern Meadowlark Western Meadowlark Similar body & colorations, but are distinct biological species because their songs & other behaviors are different enough to prevent interbreeding 4

5 Diversity & Taxonomy! The Tree of Life " species are the smallest unit at the ends of branches " basic unit for organizing & categorizing living things " smallest unit by which we measure diversity 5

6 Reproductive isolation! Species concept hinges on reproductive isolation " biological barriers that impede members from producing viable offspring " before vs. after fertilization! pre-zygotic barriers (before the zygote)! post-zygotic barriers (after the zygote) 6

7 Prezygotic barriers! Impede mating or hinder fertilization if mating occurs " habitat isolation " temporal isolation " behavioral isolation " mechanical isolation " gametic isolation 7

8 Habitat isolation! Two species may occupy different habitats within same area so may encounter each other rarely 2 species of garter snake, Thamnophis, occur in same area, but one lives in water & other is terrestrial 8

9 Temporal isolation! Species that breed during different times of day, different seasons, or different years cannot mix gametes Eastern spotted skunk (L) & western spotted skunk (R) overlap in range but eastern mates in late winter & western mates in late summer 9

10 Behavioral isolation! Courtship rituals that attract mates & other unique behaviors to a species are effective reproductive barriers Blue footed boobies mate only after a courtship display unique to their species The most comedic species of the Galapagos Islands is the Blue Footed Booby, what a ridiculous outfit and expression! Their name is in fact taken from the Spanish 'bobo' which means clown. The Blue Footed Boobies above display part of their humorous courtship ritual whereby they raise their feet one at a time and then swivel their heads away from the prospective mate looking to the sky. Other interesting Booby features are the highly evolved airbag systems in their skulls which allow them to dive bomb into the sea for fish from great height, and the egg and hatchling nesting boundaries they make which are rings of Boobie poop. They aren't the only Booby on the island there are also Masked and Red Footed Boobies about. 10

11 Gray-Crowned Cranes engaged in courtship display, Kenya What can you say? 11

12 Mechanical isolation! Morphological differences can prevent successful mating Even in closely related species of plants, the flowers often have distinct appearances that attract different pollinators. These 2 species of monkey flower differ greatly in shape & color, therefore cross-pollination does not happen. The most comedic species of the Galapagos Islands is the Blue Footed Booby, what a ridiculous outfit and expression! Their name is in fact taken from the Spanish 'bobo' which means clown. The Blue Footed Boobies above display part of their humorous courtship ritual whereby they raise their feet one at a time and then swivel their heads away from the prospective mate looking to the sky. Other interesting Booby features are the highly evolved airbag systems in their skulls which allow them to dive bomb into the sea for fish from great height, and the egg and hatchling nesting boundaries they make which are rings of Boobie poop. They aren't the only Booby on the island there are also Masked and Red Footed Boobies about. 12

13 Mechanical isolation! For many insects, male & female sex organs of closely related species do not fit together, preventing sperm transfer " lack of fit between sexual organs: hard to imagine for us, but a big issue for insects with different shaped genitals! Damsel fly penises The selection is intense because it directly affects offspring production -- it is affecting sex itself 13

14 Gametic isolation! Sperm of 1 species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another species " variety of mechanisms! chemical incompatibility # sperm cannot survive in female reproductive tract! biochemical barrier so sperm cannot penetrate egg Sea urchins release sperm & eggs into surrounding waters where they fuse & form zygotes. Gametes of different species red & purple are unable to fuse. 14

15 Postzygotic barriers! prevent hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult " reduced hybrid viability " reduced hybrid fertility " hybrid breakdown zebroid 15

16 Reduced hybrid viability! Genes of different parent species may interact & impair the hybrid s development Species of salamander genus, Ensatina, may interbreed, but most hybrids do not complete development & those that do are frail. 16

17 Reduced hybrid fertility! Even if hybrids are vigorous they may be sterile " chromosomes of parents may difier in number or structure & meiosis in hybrids may fail to produce normal gametes Mule are vigorous, but sterile Horses have 64 chromosomes Mule have 63 chromosomes! Donkeys have 62 chromosomes What s wrong with having 63 chromosomes? Odd number! Cannot pair up in meiosis. 17

18 Habitat breakdown! Hybrids may be fertile & viable in first generation, but when they mate offspring are feeble or sterile Strains of cultivated rice has accumulated recessive alleles. Hybrids are vigorous but plants in next generation are small & sterile. On path to separate species. 18

19 Speciation! Species are created by a series of evolutionary processes " populations become isolated! reproductively isolated! geographically isolated " isolated populations evolve independently! Isolation " allopatric " sympatric 19

20 Allopatric speciation! Allopatric = other country " geographic separation! migration! physical barrier Harris s antelope squirrel inhabits the canyon s south rim (L). Just a few miles away on the north rim (R) lives the closely related white tailed antelope squirrel 20

21 Sympatric speciation! Sympatric = same country " isolation even though members of population remain in contact " what causes this isolation?! chromosomal changes # polyploidy $ mostly in plants $ oats, cotton, potatoes, tobacco, wheat! non-random mating 21

22 Adaptive radiation! Evolution of many diversely adapted species when introduced to various new environmental challenges & opportunities Drosophila Geospiza 22

23 Adaptive radiation in plants Silversword alliance all descended from a common ancestor 5mya 23

24 Adaptive radiation! Many ecological niches open! Evolution of many diversely-adapted species from a common ancestor to fill niches " Darwin s finches " mammals 24

25 Review! Speciation is a process " populations become isolated! geographic isolation # different environmental conditions: food, predators, disease, habitat # different selection pressures # genetic drift! reproductive isolation # different selection pressures: sexual selection " isolated populations evolve independently 25

26 Current debate! Does speciation happen gradually or rapidly perhaps in response to environmental change " Gradualism! Charles Darwin! Charles Lyell " Punctuated equilibrium! Stephen Jay Gould! Niles Eldredge Niles Eldredge Curator American Museum of Natural History 26

27 Gradualism! Gradual divergence over long spans of time " assume that big changes occur as the accumulation of many small ones 27

28 Punctuated Equilibrium! Rate of speciation is not constant " species undergo most change when they 1 st bud from parent population " as separate species, remain static for long periods of time 28

29 Stephen Jay Gould ( )! Harvard paleontologist & evolutionary biologist " punctuated equilibrium " prolific author! popularized evolutionary thought Stephen Jay Gould (September 10, 1941 May 20, 2002) w as a New Yorkborn American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science. He w as the most influential and w idely read w riter of popular science of his generation. He served as a member of the faculty at Harvard University beginning in Tow ard the end of his life he served as the Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology at that university. He helped Niles Eldredge develop Eldredge's theory of punctuated equilibrium 1972, w herein evolutionary change occurs relatively rapidly in comparatively brief periods of environmental stress, separated by longer periods of evolutionary stability. According to Gould, this overthrew a key tenet of neo-darw inism; according to most evolutionary biologists, the theory w as an important insight but merely modified neo-darw inism in a w ay fully compatible w ith w hat had been know n before. Gould became w idely know n through his popular science essays in Natural History magazine, collections of essays like The Panda's Thumb and The Flamingo's Smile, and extended studies like Wonderful Life and others.gould w as an emphatic advocate of evolution and w rote prolifically on the subject, trying to communicate his understanding of contemporary evolutionary theory to a w ide audience. A recurring theme in his w ritings is the history and development of evolutionary (and pre-evolutionary) thinking. His early research involved the study of the fossil record of snails (detailed in one of his essays). He w as also an enthusiastic baseball fan and made frequent references to the sport (including an entire essay) and a very w ide range of other topics. 29

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31 Evolution is not goal-oriented An evolutionary trend does not mean that evolution is goal oriented. The modern horse is the only surviving twig of an evolutionary bush with many divergent trends. 31

32 Convergent evolution! Flight evolved 3 separate times " evolving similar solutions to similar problems 32

33 Parallel Evolution! parallel paths! filling similar niches therefore exhibit similar adaptations " but are not closely related 33

34 Coevolution! Predator-prey relationships! Parasite-host relationships! Flowers & pollinators 34

35 Darwin Awards Named in honor of Charles Darwin, the father of evolution, the Darwin Awards commemorate those who improve our gene pool by removing themselves from it. The Darwin Awards salute the improvement of the human genome by honoring those who accidentally kill themselves in really stupid ways. Of necessity, this honor is generally bestowed posthumously. 35