EMPOWERMENT FROM THE GENDER PERSPECTIVE

Transcription

1 Dehi Business Review X Vo. 10, No. 2 (Juy - December 2009) EMPOWERMENT FROM THE GENDER PERSPECTIVE Sonia Taneja* Midred Goden Pryor** John Humphreys*** THIS paper discusses gender inequaity and the empowerment of women from severa perspectives: (1) excusion and socia injustice, (2) the negative impact of inequaity and ack of empowerment on individua women as we as famiies and society, (3) the organizations invoved in the batte for gender equaity; and (4) suggested actions that wi assist women in caiming their fu rights in society. Aso, we emphasize that eaders of nations and organizations must foow the exampe of the United Nations and estabish specific goas, strategies, and tactics to ensure gender equaity and empowerment. Key Words: Empowerment, Gender Equaity. Introduction Gender equaity and women s empowerment is one of the eight United Nations Miennium Deveopments Goas (UN, 2008). According to United Nations Secretary-Genera Ban Ki-moon, women are not just the target of specia measures to promote deveopment. They are aso the driving force to overcome poverty, reduce hunger, fight iiteracy, hea the sick, prevent the spread of disease and promote stabiity (UN, 2008). Gender equaity and women s empowerment are considered to be a desirabe byproduct of human deveopment. Therefore, to achieve these goas, it is essentia to cose the gender equaity and empowerment gaps in education, empoyment, and poitica participation (Kabeer, 2005). CARE ( 2008), which was founded in 1946, originay was dedicated to heping poor peope overcome suffering by sending packages of basic necessities. Now CARE aso focuses on the causes of poverty and seeks its eradication by eiminating its underying causes (e.g., ack of education, ownership of property, and power to make decisions). So now CARE focuses on the human-conceived systems that excude, marginaize, and discriminate against certain groups of peope. Throughout many countries, CARE buids partnership with other organizations and works to eiminate excusion and socia injustices. Aso, CARE seeks to encourage gender equaity and women empowerment ( / Gender equaity is considered an important issue for the United Nations Deveopment Program (UNDP) because gender inequaity is an obstace to progress, a roadbock on the path of human deveopment (UNDP, 2002, pp.6). Gender equaity can be achieved by providing visibiity and support to women s * Assistant Professor Management, Texas A&M University-Commerce, Department of Marketing and Management, P O Box 3011, Commerce, Texas 75429, USA. ** Professor Management, Texas A&M University-Commerce, Department of Marketing and Management, P O Box 3011, Commerce, Texas 75429, USA. *** Professor Management, Texas A&M University-Commerce, Department of Marketing and Management, P O Box 3011, Commerce, Texas 75429, USA. 17

2 Sonia Taneja, Midred Goden Pryor and John Humphreys contributions in the design, impementation, monitoring and evauation of poicies and programs for the equa benefit of men and women (Economic and Socia Counci, 1997). The Miennium Summit of 2000 proposed four dimensions in which to achieve gender equaity i.e., poverty reduction, democratic governance, crisis prevention and recovery, and environment and sustainabe deveopment. Aso, there is a need to remove interna barriers to women s advancement into senior management, incuding assistance for women to participate from deveoping countries ( / 2007). Gender equaity impies concern for men and women, and the reationships between them. Gender inequaity can resut in disadvantages and differentias for femaes in terms of ife expectancy and chidren s nutrition, denia of choice, ack of poitica representation, and ack of empowerment (Kabeer, 1999). The inequaity for femaes exists in contrast to the equaity for maes. However, in many paces, this scenario is so much an integra part of the cuture that neither men nor women consider the inequaities unjust. Kabeer (1999) suggests that in those cases (women) have internaized their socia status as persons of esser vaue (p.440). As a resut of the internaization, women woud acquiesce to mae vioence, mae dominance in decision making, the discrimination against daughters, and other inequaities. Perhaps these women are victims of earned hepessness (Hiroto, 1974; McGrath, 1994; Overmier and Seigman, 1967; Pryor, White and Toombs, 1998, 2007). The essence of earned hepessness is that peope continuay find that a task cannot be accompished, they fee hepess. When they fee hepess, they stop trying to accompish what they perceive to be impossibe even after the task or environment has changed and success is possibe. Perhaps some women have experienced a society (i.e., peope, rituas, rues, and reguations) that so constrained them that even when society changes, they sti fee hepess and of esser vaue. Martinko and Gardner (1982) indicate that this is Organizationay Induced Hepessness when it is caused by an organization. We suggest that in the case of gender inequaity and the ack of empowerment for women this is society-induced and cuturayinduced earned hepessness. Conceptuaizing Empowerment Freedom is the right to choose: the right to create for onesef the aternative of choice, a (person) is not a (person) but a member, an instrument, a thing. Thomas Jefferson (Iyengar and Lepper (1999, p.349) So uness we want women to exist as instruments or things, we must ensure that they have choice, that they are empowered to make decisions. Empowerment is the abiity and power to make one s own choices in terms of resources, agency and achievements (Kabeer, 1999). Resources incude a mutipicity of socia reationships which are formed as a resut of society (such as famiy, market, community). These are the preconditions to make strategic ife choices (Giddens, 1979). Agency encompasses cognitive processes such as bargaining and negotiation, manipuation, and anaysis of capabiities (Kabeer, 1999, pp.438). Achievements represent the vaues of those who are doing the measurements i.e., the outcomes of choices and agency (processes) used to achieve the vaues of the communities in which women ive. This woud mean a transition from basic functioning, such as ife expectancy, to more compex achievements ike poitica representation in the word (UNDP, 1995). Empowerment of women has emerged from the importance of gender as a socio-cutura system based on unequa power reations between women and men. Pradhan (2003) notes that there has been a shift from the conventiona socio-economic perspective of viewing subordination of women in terms of socioeconomic measures of power indicated by education, income or access to resources to the empowerment of women economicay, demographicay, and sociay. Pradhan (2003) discusses the need to bring gender equaity where men and women are considered equa in every sphere of ife because if you 18

3 Dehi Business Review X Vo. 10, No. 2 (Juy - December 2009) empower a woman, you empower her chidren, her community and her country (Pradhan, 2003, pp.51-57). According to Sen and Batimore (2000), empowerment brings greater sef-confidence and increased capabiity to overcome barriers to resource access as we as impementing the changing ideoogy i.e. changing roe of women in education, income and participation in the abor force. Kishor (1997) studied empowerment, and the resuts of her studies which reate to the composite indicators used to measure empowerment are summarized by Kabeer (1999, pp ) and isted in Tabe 1. Tabe 1: Composite Indicators to Measure Empowerment Direct Evidence of Empowerment (or in the case of Devauation of women ack of Devauation of Women: Reports of domestic vioence; dowry paid at marriage. Women s Emancipation: Beief in daughters education; freedom of movement. Reported Sharing of Roes and Decision Making: Egaitarian gender roes; egaitarian decision making. Equaity in Marriage: Fewer grounds reported for justified divorce by husbands; equaity of grounds reported for divorce by husband or wife. Financia Autonomy: Currenty contros her earnings; her earnings as share of househod income. Sources of Empowerment Participation in the modern sector: Index of assets owned; femae education. Lifetime exposure to empoyment: Worked before marriage; controed earnings before marriage. Setting Indicators Famiy structure amenabe to empowerment: Does not now or previousy ive with in-aws. Marita advantage: Sma age difference between spouses; choose husband. Traditiona marriage: Large educationa Difference with husband; did not choose husband. In his speeches, United Nations Secretary-Genera Ban Ki-moon continues to stress the need to empower women. In his remarks at the March 6, 2007 informa Genera Assemby debate on gender equaity and the empowerment of women, Ban Ki-moon stated that we must pay attention to the fact that Leaders at the 2005 Word Summit decared that gender equaity and human rights for a are essentia to advancing deveopment, peace, and security ( He reminded us that it is not enough to have in pace goba goas on gender equaity and the empowerment of women. We must impement them fuy in terms of schoo enroment, economic independence, and representation in decision-making boards. He cautioned that in most countries, women are underrepresented in decision-making position, and their work is undervaued, underpaid, or not paid. Ban Ki-moon states, Out of more than 100 miion chidren who are not in schoo, the majority (of them) are girs. Out of more than 800 miion aduts who cannot read, the majority (of them) are women. Whie it is bad from the standpoints of humanity and economics that women are uneducated, underpaid, and underrepresented in decisionmaking bodies, there is something worse. They are aso victims of vioence on every continent and in every country. Ban Ki-moon says that the vioence takes a devastating to on women s ives, on their famiies, and on society as a whoe... (and that) most societies (supposedy) prohibit such vioence yet the reaity is that, too often, it is covered up or tacity condoned ( 19

4 Sonia Taneja, Midred Goden Pryor and John Humphreys In a white paper, eaders of CARE note that they attempt to guide participants in their research activities and focus groups toward their own definition of an empowered woman. According to respondents in India, Ecuador, Bangadesh, and Yemen, empowered women have the foowing: (1) Notions of sefworth and dignity (individua); (2) Bodiy integrity; freedom from coercive forces over a woman s very body (individua and structure); (3) Contro and infuence over househod and pubic resources (structure and reations); and (4) Experience with or appreciation of the vaue of coective effort and soidarity among women (reations) (CARE, 2008). Disempowerment In deveoping countries, women are marginaized to the prevaiing socia system. They are either fighting it or succumbing to it. Various nations and organizations either deiberatey or unintentionay dis-empower women. We have chosen the foowing which were prevaent in India (Batiwaa and Dhanraj, 2002).) and which were used to instrumentaize, i.e. dis-empower, women (We aso incuded our suggestions regarding each point): Women did not have fu access to economic resources. To counteract this, an effort must be made to shift economic resources into women s hands, gain recognition for women s roes in househod economies and support women s eadership in oca deveopment. The notion existed that if there are women in poitics they woud ater the character of poitica cuture by promoting socia and gender equaity, peace and sustainabe deveopment through vaues of cooperation and coaboration. Whie that is true, it is not a reason to keep women out of their rightfu pace in decision making whether in the poitica arena or in an organization. Sometimes rues, aws, and/or cutura customs kept women subjugated and paying a esser roe. Nationa eaders must change the position and condition of women by addressing her rights and needs strategicay and tacticay (i.e. by faciitating poicies, egisation and the protection and enforcement of women s right s). Once they are given their rightfu pace in society, women wi be abe to restructure power, poitics and education changing the processes and systems. Women can ony be empowered if eaders of nations, schoos, businesses and other institutions make a commitment for them to be a fu member of society. In speaking for the empowerment of women, Kofi Annan (2006) noted that It is impossibe to reaize our goas whie discriminating against haf the human race Probems with Gender Inequaity and Lack of Empowerment of Women The questions reating to women empowerment and gender equaity can be answered by reviewing the statistics provided by CARE, Of the 1.3 biion peope who ive in absoute poverty around the gobe, 70 percent are women... (with) rights denied, opportunities curtaied, and voices sienced (Drinkwater, 2005). These are the women who have been deprived of their rights of to be educated, to be empoyed and to own property. According to the United Nations Miennium Campaign (from CARE, 2008), the foowing statistics refect a very negative situation for women: Women work two-thirds of the word s working hours. Women spend a majority of their time raising the chidren, cooking, maintaining the house, and managing househod chores. Yet their work is considered ow status because it is not recognized as meaningfu work. A of these things are expected from women, but they are not rewarded monetariy. Women earn ony 10% of the word s income because of the imitations caused by the environment and gender inequaity. 20

5 Dehi Business Review X Vo. 10, No. 2 (Juy - December 2009) Women make up two-thirds of the estimated 876 miion aduts wordwide who cannot read or write. A gir s education is considered frivoous since women are expected to work at home, i.e., maintaining the househod. These are the background factors which have ed the United Nations to work for women empowerment (i.e., gender equaity and women empowerment in education, empoyment and poitica participation). Gender Inequaity and Lack of Empowerment in the Workpace In the United States, sexua discrimination was outawed by the impementation of the Civi Rights Act of The provisions of this civi rights act forbade discrimination on the basis of sex as we as race in hiring, promoting, and firing. (Nationa Archives and Records Administration) Whie discrimination is iega and sociay unacceptabe in empoyment practices in the United States, there is sti much work to do to achieve rea equaity for both minorities and women. The gender wage (or pay) gap is the difference in the earning between men and women (Bau and Khan, 2006). In 1998, the pay ratio in the United States increased to 79.7% from 74.5% in 1989 and 63.2% in 1979 (Bau and Khan, 2006). The women s-to-men s earnings ratio among 35- to 44-year-ods rose from 58 percent in 1979 to 77 percent in 2007, and the ratio for 45- to 54-year-ods increased from 57 percent to 75 percent ( Aso, between 1979 and 2007, the earnings gap between women and men narrowed for most age groups. For more information, see Bureau of Labor Statistics Report 1008 entited Highights of Women s Earnings in Chart 1: Women s Earnings as a Percentage of Men s, Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2007). Retrieved December 9, 2008 from The answer to gender equaity in the workpace is removing environmenta and organizationa barriers regardess of an empoyee s gender or race. A diverse workforce can provide a competitive advantage as demonstrated by women entrepreneurs. The Gass Ceiing The term gass ceiing was coined by Katherine Lawrence and Marianne Schreiber of Hewett- Packard in The term gass ceiing refers to situations where the advancement of a quaified 21

6 Sonia Taneja, Midred Goden Pryor and John Humphreys person within the hierarchy of an organization is stopped at a ower eve because of some form of discrimination, most commony sexism or racism. Gass ceiing is defined as the phenomenon whereby women do quite we in the abor market up to a market after which there is an effective imit on their prospects Abrecht et a., 2003, pp.146). Women Entrepreneurs The huge growth in numbers of femae entrepreneurs may be partiay attributed to the gass ceiing. Women are making sma advances in the corporate structure. However, women are aso making significant headway in owning their own business. Women-owned businesses grew 28% between 1997 and Some women are starting their own businesses right after competing their coege education. Others eave the corporate word to start businesses. Women are interested in entrepreneuria endeavors because they offer decision-making opportunities as we as the potentia for financia sef-sufficiency (Kein, 2006). Veira (2008, p.96) notes that 25 percent of the entrepreneurs are women, and 75 percent are men. It is possibe that women are better entrepreneurs than men because ony 14.6% of the entrepreneurs who go bankrupt are femae, and 85.4% of them are men. These figures hep expain the changing roe of women in empoyment. Aso, these statistics are evidence of the fact that when women are empowered, they are abe to positivey impact their work environment. Gender Inequaity and Lack of Empowerment in Poitics Ake (2000) beieves that Democracy is never given it is aways taken (pp.7). Yet this is difficut for women who are undereducated or uneducated, who are of esser socia status than men, and/or whose reigious aws do not affirm them as equa. In Africa, women cannot enter into poitics because they are not quaified in terms of education because of ow economic and socia status (Foster, 1993; Geiser, 1995). In some instances, women are prevented from entering poitics because reigious aws discriminate against women (House-Midamba 1996; Yoon, 2001). Perhaps others see the increased empowerment of women in poitics as vaues or heritage issue because it is antithetica to generationa patrimony (Lindberg, 2004; Tripp, 2001). As of 2005, women in the United States made up 51 percent of the popuation. Yet, in 2008, ony 75 women are in the House of Representatives and 16 women hod Senate seats. Combined, women comprise 17 percent of the U.S. Congress. Ceary, strides are being made toward equaity, but there is a ong way to go before women are equay represented in the Senate, House of representatives, and boardrooms across the country (Capita Advantage, 2008). The gass ceiing may have been shattered. However, in recent news, it seems to remain intact. In 2008, two women competed for the highest offices of the United States. New York Senator, Hiary Cinton was a presidentia nominee, and Aaska Governor, Sarah Pain was a vice presidentia nominee. Members of the media continuousy questioned their abiities to hande the demands of the offices for which they were contenders. Aso, certain issues were raised that were not raised with their mae counterparts. For exampe, some of the issues for Governor Pain incuded questions regarding her abiity to simutaneousy hande famiy and vice presidentia responsibiities as we as the amount of money spent on cothing and attire. Harris & Frerking (2008) emphasize that such questions woud not have been asked of a mae candidate. Suggested Actions to Reduce Gender Inequaity and Increase the Empowerment of Women Be the change you want to see in the word 22 (Dr. Sonia Taneja)

7 Dehi Business Review X Vo. 10, No. 2 (Juy - December 2009) It is incumbent upon a peope to understand what equaity and empowerment are and the reason that they are essentia for a human beings. Once they have that knowedge, they then have the responsibiity to hep transform their respective parts of society so that equaity and empowerment are reaities. These are peope issues and societa issues, not just women s issues. However, if women want to have equaity and be empowered, they must first beieve they are worthy and stand up for justice. Their husbands, fathers, and mothers must aso stand up and make society better for future generations as we as this one. When contempating equaity and empowerment, each person must say, I wi be the change that I want to see in the word. Secretary-Genera Ban Ki-moon says that improving empowerment and equaity for women requires a of us... to work for enduring change in vaues and attitudes... transforming reations between women and men, at a eves of society. It aso requires... governments, internationa organizations, civi society and the private sector to work as partners... to ensure that women and girs enjoy their fu rights and take up their rightfu pace in society ( 2007). The foowing actions are suggested by Secretary-Genera Ban Ki-moon, and he says that we must simutaneousy move forward on severa fronts at once: Ensuring that men take on a greater roe in househod and famiy care; Chaenging traditions and customs, stereotypes and harmfu practices that stand in the way of women and girs; Ensuring that women have access to education and heath care, property and and; Investing in infrastructure to reduce time burdens for women and girs; Promoting human rights and security, incuding freedom from vioence; Integrating gender issues into the foow-up to UN resoutions and decisions incuding the work of recenty estabished bodies such as the Peace Buiding Commission and the Human Rights Counci ( In his November 25, 2008 remarks at the UNIFEM (United Nation s Deveopment Fund for Women) High-Leve Event: United Voices Say No to Vioence against Women ( 2007). Ban Ki-moon reiterated his commitment to freedom from vioence. He said that we must act now because every day, women are beaten and abused in their homes, girs are abused and raped at schoos, women and girs are trafficked (i.e., sod) across borders, and sexua vioence is used as a weapon of war. He encouraged greater socia mobiization as he reiterated his ca on government and other eaders and peope throughout society to say no to vioence against women. CARE 2008 has moved from a simpe needs approach to a rights approach. The difference is that the rights approach: Insists that poverty is neither natura nor inevitabe, but has roots in poitica and economic decisions; Heps us identify the structura and societa causes of poverty and marginaization; Aims to address reations between those who wied power and those who do not; Provides a means of strengthening peope s capacities to caim and exercise their rights; and Carifies authorities duties to those they serve. Some authors (Be, 2006; Masini, 1994) beieve that when it comes to change, women are the first to adapt to changing circumstances because of their innate quaity of being creative and imaginative. 23

8 Sonia Taneja, Midred Goden Pryor and John Humphreys Creativity is the artistic outcome of a process of profound feeing which may not be perceived but can ony be fet. Women are abe to adapt to changes at the macro eve (i.e., in poitics, economics, the environment, science, and technoogy). They are aso abe to adapt to the effects of the macro-eve changes as we as at the micro-eve (i.e., in her househod). Studies on the effects of such changes on women s ives at the macro-eve and the micro-eve were conducted in three areas (textie industries in Argentina and Brazi, femae migration in Sri Lanka, and women working in factories in China). This had a negative impact on the women s working ives at macro- eve but no impact on their famiy and househod ives (micro-eve) because of the transformation of the textie industry in both Argentina and Brazi to more sophisticated mechanica changes (Masini, 1994, pp.53). The chaenges and questions are difficut, and the answers are not easy. However, they are possibe. Women must step up and chaenge the status quo (Tripp, 2001). Leaders of nations, businesses, educationa institutions, heathcare organizations, and other institutions and organizations must make the goas of gender equaity and the empowerment of women an integra part of their strategic and tactica (operationa) pans. Then they must measure the extent to which they have achieved their goas. Leaders in the United Nations and other word entities as we as nationa, state and oca entities have spoken about the need for gender equaity and the empowerment of women. Now it is time for action, i.e., the execution of the strategic and tactica pans. Concusion and Recommendations As ong as members of societies or sub-groups in societies permit or enabe the subjugation of other members or sub-groups, gender equaity in those sub-groups and societies wi remain an iusive dream, not a rea goa for which strategies and tactics can be executed. So it is incumbent on members of societies and sub-groups in societies to make strong commitments to equaity and to encourage their governmenta, business, educationa, reigious, and other organizations to estabish egisative, procedura and other requirements for equaity. The United Nations Secretary-Genera and eaders of various nations have made pubic commitments to women s empowerment and equaity. It is now time for them and other organizationa eaders to estabish goas that are specific, measurabe, and time-based in order that they may subsequenty estabish executabe strategies and tactics. Unti and uness gender equaity and the empowerment of women become a reaity, society wi suffer the consequences in terms of uneducated and undereducated women, vioence against femaes, poverty, and underrepresentation of women in decision-making positions. References Abrecht. J, B., Jorkund. A, and Vroman. S. (2003), Is there a gass ceiing in Sweden?, Labor Economics, Vo.21, p , Retrieved December 8, 2008 from a e48d45fd8%40sessionmgr107. Ake, Caude (2000), The feasibiity of Democracy in Africa, Dakar: Codresia, kr8v0t0tr5u52u74/. Batiwaa, S. and Dhanraj, D. (2002), Gender Myths That Instrumentaize Women: A View from the Indian Front Line, Retrieved December 8, 2008 from dq=gender+myths+that+instrumentaize+women:+a+view+from+the+indian+front+ine.+&ots=l93mn5y31q& sig=zedbysuwfo04ypo2moz2_ot70yg. Be, W. (2006), Eeonora Masini on the Empowerment of Women, Futures, Vo.38, No.10, pp , Retrieved December 6, 2008 from Science Direct at _pubtype=j&_acct=c &_version=1&_urversion=0&_userid=952825&md5=83a0edba9c2196e f58dc7d1c7& jchunk=38#38. Bau, Francine D. and Lawrence M. Khan (June, 2006), The US Gender Pay Gap in the 1990 s: Sowing Convergence, Nationa Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 2176, Retrieved November 23, 2008 from

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