Unequal in life? Human remains from the Danish excavations of Tylos tombs

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1 Arab. arch. epig. 2003: 14: (2003) Printed in Denmark. All rights reserved Unequal in life? Human remains from the Danish excavations of Tylos tombs JUDITH LITTLETON Dept. of Anthropology, University of Auckland, New Zealand The Danish excavations in Bahrain of Tylos graves at Sar and from Pylon T158 resulted in the recovery of seventeen skeletons. Apart from a single infant, all remains were of adults with females dying, on average, at a younger age than males. Among the pathological conditions identified, porotic hyperostosis (frequently linked to anaemia) was common. Infectious lesions were observed including two cases tentatively diagnosed as tuberculosis. The only other pathological condition noted was a possible case of skeletal fluorosis. This range of disease is comparable to other skeletal samples dating to the Tylos period. Measurements also indicate that these samples are similar to other Tylos remains from Bahrain. A feature of this period is the disparity in health between males and females, evidenced by differences in robusticity and height. This disparity is more marked than in other periods and it is argued that it is evidence of a greater inequality on the island during this period. The Tylos period (c.300 BC AD 250) in Bahrain is the best represented in terms of well-preserved human remains. It is possible, therefore, to address not only broad correlations between population and environment, but more specific issues of intraand inter-population variability on the island within one, albeit broad, period of time. While only four skeletons have been recovered from the Danish excavations in Sar (referred to here as Sar-DK) and thirteen from Pylon T158 (probably Šakura/Abu Saybi), they add to this broader corpus. In this report the individual remains from each grave are described in the appendix, the text focuses upon comparison of these remains with others from the same period. What is proposed is that during the Tylos period there is evidence for inequality both between genders and between areas of the island. While this inequality can partly be explained by environmental differences from preceding periods, the extent of the environmental change and its effect upon individuals was mediated by a social system acting in response to changes in political economy. Methods The human remains were examined by the author in 1995 at Aarhus. Remains not recorded at that time were recorded in 1998 at the Australian National University. The percentage of graves containing human remains is 78% at Pylon T158 and 100% 164

2 HUMAN REMAINS FROM TYLOS TOMBS at Sar-DK. Jensen s paper in this volume describes the sites and material remains. Estimation of sex and age at death was conducted using standardized morphological indicators (1, 2). Sex was determined on the basis of pelvic indicators, e.g. width of the sciatic notch, presence of a preauricular sulcus and ischiopubic morphology. Where the pelvis was not available, cranial indicators such as development of the supraorbital torus, nucchal torus, mastoid size, chin shape and gonial angle were used. Sex was not determined for the single subadult, and in cases where the determination was ambiguous (generally due to poor preservation) no attribution was made. Estimation of skeletal age at death of adults was based upon multiple indicators dependent upon preservation of diagnostic sites: pubic symphyseal age changes (using the revision of Todd (3)), sacroauricular morphology (4) and cranial suture closure (5). A further indicator for younger adults was the degree of epiphyseal closure (6). These methods have varying degrees of accuracy, therefore age estimates for adults are divided into three broad groups: young adult (15 30, often this can be more accurately determined), middle adult (30 45 years) and old adult (45+). The age of the single subadult was determined by the degree of dental development (7). The degree of completeness of the remains was variable for most individuals only limited measurements (8) could be recorded. Pathology was recorded by macroscopic examination, as were dental lesions, which were scored as outlined in Littleton & Frøhlich (9). The scoring of attrition was based upon Scott (10). Results Demography and representation The group of skeletons from these graves comprises only seventeen individuals Table 1. Age and sex distribution of the skeletal remains. Pylon T158 Sar Male Female Total Male Female Total Adult? Total (Table 1). Subadults are seriously underrepresented, there being only one infant among the burials at Pylon T158 and no older children at either site. This imbalance has been observed in other excavations of Tylos cemeteries (11). It stems from two causes. The first is that children are often buried differently to adults; many are buried in jars, particularly in the Sar region (e.g. Janussan (12), Sar Mound 5 (13)) and this means that their bodies are subject to different taphonomic circumstances than adults. Based on observations at Sar Mound 5, preservation of human remains was poorer in jars than in graves. The second and more significant reason, is that it is highly probable that more than one mound was in use at any one time. Thus while one mound may have a large number of children, the neighbouring mound will have very few. Indications of this come from the Sar excavations where the frequency of subadults varies greatly between mounds. In the German excavations at Sar only four children were found in thirty-five burials (14) compared to up to fifteen burial jars containing children in the neighbouring mound (15). The disparity is even more extreme at DS3, Hamad Town, where the representation of children in individual burial mounds may range from nil to more than 50 percent. Subadult burials are not randomly distributed across mounds in an area so that burials from a single mound in 165

3 J. LITTLETON the Tylos period potentially represent a very selective, non-representative sample (16). Among the adults, however, males and females are equally represented at both Danish sites (Sar-DK and Pylon T158). There is no significant difference between the numbers of females and males in commingled graves (four females compared to two males) though it is possible that a trend towards more females in reused burials might appear in a larger sample. However, given the lack of evidence for such differential burial in other Tylos period cemeteries this does not appear likely (17, 18, 19). One significant difference, however, is that the females at both Danish sites have died at an earlier age than the males. Excess female mortality in skeletal samples is potentially the result of inaccuracies in age estimation (20). In the two young females at Sar and three from Pylon T158, however, fusion of the epiphyses had not occurred. Fusion of the epiphyses occurs when growth is complete, so open epiphyses are a secure indicator of adolescent/young adulthood status (21). In addition, epiphyseal closure occurs at similar times in males and females, yet none of the males from these sites had open epiphyses. So even on this very broad indicator, females died at an earlier age than males. Given the use of more than one mound at a time this inequity at the two Danish sites could be sampling error. Excess female mortality, however, has already been recorded in Tylos period cemeteries from Bahrain (Table 2), being very marked at DS3 and less marked in other excavations at Sar. The current sample is too small to determine either an absolute level of mortality or the extent of the disparity beyond its existence. Metric comparisons and gender disparity Only limited measurements could be taken of the human remains from these Table 2. Representation of the sexes in Tylos period cemeteries on Bahrain. Males Females Cemetery % n % n Pylon T158: Young Adults Mid-Old Adults Sar (Danish): Young Adults Mid-Old Adults DS3: Young Adults Mid-Old adults Sar Mound 5: Young Adults Mid-Old Adults Sar (German): Young Adults Mid-Old Adults excavations. Male measurements are closely comparable to measurements from other Tylos period excavations and demonstrate no significant differences in stature or robusticity between the sites (Table 3). Male stature could not be calculated for either of the two samples described in this report. Based on other Tylos samples the average height of males, using the formulae for Caucasian males (22), was 167 cm. Given the lack of difference in other male measurements it is likely that males buried at the two Danish sites achieved a comparable stature. The female skeletons were, on average, better preserved and height could be calculated from these remains. Average height for adult females was 158 cm at Pylon T158 and cm at Sar (Table 4). Comparison of dimensions with female remains from other Tylos sites indicates few differences. Part of this is due, however, to small sample sizes. When sites are combined by area into North (Karannah, Abu Saybi), Central (Sar) and South (DS3) it turns out the femoral and humeral joint and length measurements are significantly smaller in the south 166

4 HUMAN REMAINS FROM TYLOS TOMBS Table 3. Comparison of metric data in mm for males with other Tylos period sites, sample size in brackets. Pylon T158 Sar (Danish) Sar (German) Sar Mound 5 Karannah (German) D.S.3. Humerus max l (1) (5) (6) (5) (29) Ulna max. l (1) (4) (4) (1) (18) Femur head d (5) 47.0 (2) 47.4 (7) 45.8 (8) 47.3 (8) 47.5 (63) Height (4) (3) (3) (28) Table 4. Comparison of metric data in mm for females with other Tylos period sites, sample size in brackets. Pylon T158 Sar (Danish) Sar (German) Sar Mound 5 Karannah (German) D.S.3. Humerus max l (3) (1) (5) (7) (4) (31) Ulna max l (1) (1) (3) (6) (5) (17) Radius max l (2) (2) (3) (7) (4) (23) Femur max l (2) (2) (6) (7) (5) (26) Femur head d (4) 39.3 (3) 40.7 (9) 40.5 (8) 43.8 (6) 40.7 (63) Tibia max l (2) (1) (5) (4) (5) (10) Height (2) (2) (6) (7) (5) (26) and central areas than in the northern areas (Table 5). The difference is slight and given the number of comparisons and small sample size, potentially due to chance. It is, however, possible that the extreme female gracility observed among the female remains from the Tylos period is more marked in the Sar and DS3 remains than the remains from the Karannah-Abu Saybi areas. This female gracility is reflected in the degree of sexual dimorphism among the Tylos period remains from all areas, especially the central and south. Females attain only 92.8% of male height compared to 95% in the Early Dilmun period (Fig. 1). Comparing absolute stature, male height has not changed from the Early Dilmun to the Tylos period, but female height has significantly declined. At the same time there is also statistically significant sexual dimorphism in terms of joint size and in shaft development. This difference may be the result of temporal differences between the samples. The evidence, however, is that the samples are largely contemporary (23). In addition, there is no significant difference or trend between the measures of the males at the same sites suggesting something other than uniform chronological difference is the reason for the variable female height. Pathology and lifestyle Given the fragmentary nature of the material, observations of pathology on these remains are limited (Table 6). The range of conditions observed are comparable with other studies of Tylos Table 5. Differences in female size (n) between areas on Bahrain during the Tylos period (p values adjusted for multiple comparisons). North Central South F p Humerus max. l (7) (13) (31) Humerus Head vert. diam (6) 38.5 (17) 39.9 (54) Humerus head transverse d (7) 35.8 (14) 37.3 (55) Femur max. l (7) (15) (26) Femur head d (10) 40.4 (20) 40.7 (63)

5 J. LITTLETON Fig. 1. Comparison of stature by sex over time on Bahrain. 168

6 HUMAN REMAINS FROM TYLOS TOMBS Table 6. Observations on pathology on the skeletons from Pylon T158 and Sar. Indicator % n Porotic hyperostosis: -cribra orbitalia /11 (3 females from Pylon T158; 1 from Sar) -porotic hyperostosis 9.1 1/11 (1 female from Sar, healed) Infection /11 (1 from Pylon T158) Vertebral osteoarthritis /11 (all middle-old adults; 1 from Sar) Osteoarthritis /11 (1 from Sar) period remains from the island, and despite the small size of the sample they occur at comparable levels in the population. Each of these conditions will be dealt with in turn. Porotic hyperostosis Porotic hyperostosis is the result of the expansion of bone marrow in the skull, attributed most frequently to iron-deficiency anaemia (24). In children most of the spaces within the medullary cavities of the long and short bones, and between the inner and outer cranial tables, are occupied by marrow producing red-blood cells. When a child becomes anaemic, the marrow expands in order to produce more blood cells (25). Particularly in areas of the skeleton where the outer bone is very thin, the pressure of the expansion causes porosity and expansion of the outer cortex. It is thought that one of the initial signs of this is in the thinnest bone, i.e. the orbital plate, so that cribra orbitalia results (pitting of the orbital surface and expansion of its contours, Fig. 2). More extensive expansion throughout the skull vault is included in the broader observation of porotic hyperostosis. The bone lesions develop in childhood and appear to reflect a chronic condition, so that their presence among adults reflects conditions during childhood. The lack of any remodelling of the lesions indicative of healing of the bone in adults suggests that the anaemia may have failed to ameliorate at adulthood. Porotic hyperostosis is multi-causal. While it has been hypothesised that some individuals at DS3 suffered from thalassaemia (one of the inherited anaemias), this condition could not account for all cases of porotic hyperostosis (26). Iron-deficiency anaemia can occur as a result of nutritional insufficiency, but there is little evidence for Table 7. The occurrence of dental pathology in the Bahrain sample. Dental Pathology No. of sockets or teeth (n) No. of individuals affected (n) Sar: Enamel hypoplasia 50.0% (2) 50.0% (2) Caries 50.0% (2) 50.0% (2) Antemortem tooth loss 11.1% (18) 66.7% (3) Calculus 0.0% (2) 0.0% (2) Dental wear Slight on posterior and on anterior teeth T158: Enamel hypoplasia 52.7% (55) 80.0% (10) Caries 21.8% (55) 40.0% (10) Antemortem tooth loss 26.4% (106) 100.0% (8) Calculus 7.3% (55) 10.0% (10) Dental wear Slight on posterior teeth, moderate on anterior teeth 169

7 J. LITTLETON Fig. 2. Slight cribra orbitalia in the orbits of 963.M. inadequate nutrition in Bahrain at this time, although phytates in unleavened bread may inhibit iron absorption (27). Parasitism through direct blood loss and by inhibiting gastrointestinal absorption can cause anaemia, as can infection by malaria (28, 29). Historically Bahrain has been in a belt of malarial endemnicity exacerbated through the use of irrigation (30). The rate of porotic hyperostosis in the Danish samples is comparable with that from other sites on Bahrain during this period (31). There is a predominance of lesions among females rather than males. Since these lesions develop during childhood they are not the result of the greater iron demands experienced by women who are menstruating, pregnant or lactating. Rather they are the result of childhood conditions, particularly those of early childhood. Infectious lesions Differential diagnosis of infectious lesions in skeleton material, particularly when fragmentary, is difficult. Infectious lesions observed amongst these skeletons are periosteal, i.e. involving inflammation of the external surface of the bone. Such lesions can be the result of trauma with the entry of bacteria through a wound, or the result of a more systemic infection (32). Trauma seems a likely explanation for the localized periostitis observed around the elbow joint of 985.R and on the fibula and metatarsal of 962.L given that both locations are subject to accidental blows and injuries. In both 964.A and 961.C the ribs have mild periosteal reactions. In 964.A the lesion is a localized reaction on the ventral surface of the rib. Based on an extensive examination of rib lesions among Native Americans, Kelley & Micozzi (33) argue 170

8 HUMAN REMAINS FROM TYLOS TOMBS that such lesions are most frequently the result of a respiratory infection. Periosteal reactions are rare in bronchopneumonia (c.0.3% of sufferers develop septic arthritis) but occur in about 9% of tuberculosis cases (34) primarily on the ventral surface. In 964.C the rib lesions are part of a more extensive inflammatory reaction involving the shoulder girdle, arms and lower legs. The rib lesions are primarily upon the dorsal surface which is not consistent with the diagnosis of tuberculosis. The disseminated nature of the infection suggests a more generalised blood-borne infection possibly originating from initial trauma. The final infectious lesion observed is the perforation of the endocranial surface of the supraorbital sinus in the cranium of 963.M (Fig. 3). The location of the lesion behind the orbital sinus suggests that it may be a fistula due to an infection of the left supraorbital sinus. The margin of the lesion shows active resorption with minimal reactive bone. The infection has spread above the internal periosteum with hypervascularity of the endocranial surface. Two possible explanations are abscessing from a sinus infection and tuberculosis. The lack of reactivity and any other signs of inflammation in the sinus (35) suggest that sinus infection may not have been the primary cause. Involvement of the cranium is not common in skeletal tuberculosis but does occur, although most frequently among children (36). Given the lack of evidence elsewhere on the skeleton a definite diagnosis cannot be made, but the conjunction in a site with other suspected tuberculosis cases is suggestive. The tentative diagnosis of tuberculosis for 964.A and 963.M, however, is strengthened by the presence of pathognomic signs of the disease in the DS3 sample from the same period (37). Tuberculosis has been identified among Middle Eastern populations from the Bronze Age onwards (38). Even today tuberculosis is a major health problem in the Arabian Gulf (39, 40). The condition is most easily transmitted in populations where density is relatively high. Small agricultural villages in Bahrain, particularly if in contact with each other, would provide a suitable environment for its continued existence. Since associated mortality from tuberculosis in the past was high, particularly among children and young adults (41), if it was present among the people living in Sar it probably accounted for some of the young adult mortality. In any case, the same living conditions facilitate the spread of other infectious conditions that could account for the lesions observed among these samples. Osteoarthritis and other conditions Vertebral osteoarthritis in this group is common, affecting six of eleven adults. These were all middle- to old-adults. Osteoarthritis, particularly of weight-bearing areas such as the lumbar curve, is a common consequence of age. While patterns of work may accentuate arthritis of particular joints, there are no cases of particular severity in this sample (42). In the majority of cases the degeneration either the formation of bony spurs (osteophytes) or erosion of the joint surface is only mild (Fig. 4). It is also only present in the joints typically affected in most populations, i.e. the weight-bearing joints of the mid-thoracic to lumbar vertebrae, the hip and the knee. This pattern of arthritis is consistent with other Tylos populations (43). One individual (985.BI), however, has extensive lipping on the vertebrae, including bony spurs along the vertebral arches and around the rib facets. This differs from the normal pattern of osteophyte growth due to arthritis. Vertebral osteophytosis affects the vertebral bodies not the vertebral arches or rib facets (44). The more general ossification of ligaments seen in this one 171

9 J. LITTLETON Fig. 3. Lytic lesion in the area of the supraorbital sinus of 963.M. Note periosteal reaction in endocranium. individual is much more characteristic of a form of skeletal hypertrophy, either Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis (DISH) or skeletal fluorosis. DISH is a common disorder affecting c.6-12% of individuals (most more than 50 years old) in an autopsy sample (45). It is probably present in low frequencies in most skeletal samples. Skeletal fluorosis, on the other hand, has already been identified on the island (46, 47) and is thought to be due to the moderate levels of fluoride contained in spring water on the island. This single case from Pylon T158 is, however, only mildly affected and differential diagnosis between DISH and fluorosis is not possible. In either respect these conditions are also found in skeletons from other sites in this period. Summary This brief survey of pathology in the human remains from the Danish excavations at Sar 172

10 HUMAN REMAINS FROM TYLOS TOMBS Fig. 4. Marginal lipping on vertebrae from 964.C and Schmorl s node on superior surface. 173

11 J. LITTLETON and Pylon T158 demonstrates that the range of conditions identified matches what is already known of the Tylos period in Bahrain. Overall, in this period there was a reasonably heavy load of anaemia probably the result of multiple causes; infection (possibly including tuberculosis); possibly skeletal fluorosis but no excessive levels of osteoarthritis. In terms of mortality, tuberculosis would be a serious cause of death while anaemia was probably contributory, particularly among children. These rates of infection, anaemia and osteoarthritis are broadly reflective of an agricultural economy. Dental pathology and diet It has been argued elsewhere (48,49) that the pattern of dental disease in the Early and Late Dilmun periods is consistent with what is known of agricultural practices of the island at the time. The general pattern of high rates of antemortem tooth loss and caries in the Tylos period fits this same pattern. Such a pattern would be predicted for intensive agriculturalists or gardeners where the diet is dominated by fruits (particularly dates) and vegetables, along with sheep/goat or fish as a source of protein (50). In the Tylos sites there is growing evidence, however, that there were differences both within the sexual division of labour and in the pattern of diet. In the larger sample from DS3, while both males and females have evidence of heavy anterior wear, significantly more males than females were affected. In contrast, more females than males had caries. This could be due to differences in susceptibility, dietary composition (more fermentable carbohydrates eaten by women), or even different patterns of eating (more frequent snacking by women). It is noteworthy that at both sites there is evidence of high levels of fluoride in the mottling of a small number of teeth. This confirms findings elsewhere (51) and is significant given the possible instance of skeletal fluorosis found at Pylon T158 (described above). Discussion The samples and the Tylos period The main finding of this report is that these human remains closely match the profile of other Tylos period remains. They demonstrate the same pattern of marked female gracility in comparison to males, and show no marked deviations in size or shape of bones that could indicate population differences. The same is true of the skeletal pathology, there being no marked difference between the findings from these excavations and those of other excavations from this time period. While these two Danish samples are broadly consistent with the two larger Tylos groups of remains (Sar Mound 5 and DS3), the latter two samples do demonstrate a number of differences suggestive of regional variation (52). Primarily, based on Sar Mound 5, mortality seemed slightly lower than at DS3, and rates of pathology are also lower. The current sample does not add any further information to this contrast. The comparison of measurements between individuals from the Northern (Karannah, Abu Saybi and Šakura), Central (Sar) and Southern (DS3) areas suggests the possibility of further intra-island contrasts, with the females from the northern area being slightly more robust. Clearly it is necessary to gather together whatever data is available from this northern area close to Qal at al-bahrain (e.g. Karannah and Abu Saybi) and further compare the skeletal characteristics. At the moment, given the differences already outlined between Sar Mound 5 and DS3 and this current comparison, it 174

12 HUMAN REMAINS FROM TYLOS TOMBS appears that there could be potential variation between the human biology of different settlements of the time. In addition, in order to obtain sufficient sample sizes for comparison, all Tylos period remains have been grouped together, but in future we hope it will be possible to divide remains into Seleucid and Parthian periods (or whatever equivalent). The Tylos period: environment and politics Potential reasons for such variation rest upon two possibilities: environmental change and socioeconomic changes. Relatively little is known of environmental conditions during the Tylos period and Larsen s analysis (53) remains a prime source of data, along with parallels from recent history. While there are difficulties in Larsen s assumption that settlement within a given period would extend to the maximum allowed by water levels (54), water levels are an important marker of environmental conditions. In addition, as is typical for Bahrain, our knowledge of cemetery locations outstrips knowledge of settlement location (55). The extent of occupation on the island therefore has to be inferred from the presence of cemeteries rather than vice versa. During the Tylos period it appears that the climate may have been moister than currently, which would mean less pressure on spring water supplies. Based on the data available, Larsen (56) suggested that spring water supplies at the time would only occur in areas less than 6 m above sea level. This seems to underestimate the extent of water supplies since cemeteries in this period extend further south well beyond the extent of settlements that this limit would imply. It may be that more efficient irrigation shifted reliance from pure gravity flow systems or that there is a simple underestimate of available supplies. Probably both reasons apply and indeed more efficient irrigation may explain the extent of anaemia which would occur more frequently in populations where there are good breeding places for mosquitoes and parasites. Potential shifts in agricultural practice partially explain temporal changes in the pattern of disease in Bahrain but fail to explain why intra-population differences should begin to appear. Such differences seem to be due to the intersection of environment, economy and politics. In historical accounts of this period agricultural products, as well as pearl fishing are emphasised (57 60). In the period BC evidence indicates that Bahrain was involved in the regional movement of foodstuffs rather than in luxury long-distance trade (61). After this period domination and later control of trade probably originated from Characene, a Parthian sub-kingdom at the head of the Gulf, until the end of the second century AD (62 64). So far there is no agreement on the nature of political arrangements on the island during this entire period. Salles (65, 66) argues that there was a Seleucid fortified site on Tylos in the early half of the period which, like the later Portuguese occupation, remained isolated as a foreign enclave. Potts (67), on the other hand, argues for the presence of Palmyrenes as Parthian representatives during the latter half of the period. Certainly graves in the Tylos period attest to foreign influences (e.g. tomb contents such as bird bones, statues, Greek inscriptions, imported items (68, 69) that are evidence of the island s involvement in a broader economy). Salles (70) interprets this involvement as being managed by foreigners with a local hierarchy that organised trade and marketing. Tying this in with Larsen s model of settlement hierarchies declining from north to south (71), workers from the small 175

13 J. LITTLETON dispersed settlements, away from the major settlements in the north of the island, would have engaged in date cultivation and pearl fishing. In Salles view: the political development of the island is thus only visible in the city, inasmuch as it is the place where any power, be it economic or military, local or foreign, was located (72). For Salles, the remainder of the island, apart from the major northern settlements would remain entirely untouched by the process of colonisation (73). Human remains and inequality It is possible of course that the observed geographical and gender differences in human biology are the result of different population groupings (an early suggestion by Salles (74)). The lack of variation between males from these different areas of the island and the lack of any differences in cranial dimensions (75) argues against this. Rather, the current analysis of human remains begins to indicate that people living in dispersed agricultural settlements in the centre and south of the island (as in any current population) were not isolated from the impact of broader political and economic changes. Social organisation may then serve to intensify or ameliorate the impact of broader environmental and economic changes upon the individual. In the Tylos period skeletal samples there are two visible levels of inequality (although these are probably not the only ones that occurred). Firstly, there are gender differentials in health. This is not solely the result of different biology. Higher female than male mortality is a common pattern in many archaeological populations and in part may be the result of systematic biases in age estimation (76). This bias, however, is unlikely to be the sole cause of such disparity. In the Tylos period, females have higher levels of cribra orbitalia, a marker of anaemia (77). This is not a marker of adult inequality but of childhood inequality. Such inequality between the genders is not necessarily the result of restricting the food intake of girls. It may be (and probably was) a conjunction of causes: differing diets, differing workloads and differing care. In a society where access to resources is more limited and where, as argued in Littleton (78), there is a high level of mortality due to environmental factors, part of the accommodation can be to allocate resources by gender. Gender-specific treatment, of course, is not restricted to societies experiencing shortage, but high levels of stress indicators and subadult mortality in some Tylos samples do suggest a degree of stress in the system. Secondly, at the broader level, both here and elsewhere (79), it has been suggested that different settlements experienced slightly different health conditions. The current samples fall into the pattern already indicated by the comparison of Sar Mound 5 and DS3, but given their small size do not further clarify the existence or non-existence of regional differences. Some of these differences probably accrue from different environmental settings: potentially DS3 was more marginal in terms of water supply than Sar and Šakura. In order to explore whether a combination of political and economic circumstances has resulted in significant regional differences we need both a larger collection of human remains, particularly from the northern part of the island, and categorisation of the cemetery dates into at least an early and late group. The current evidence from the Danish excavations adds to the body of Tylos period remains. At the current moment it appears that given analysis of Tylos period remains from a wider area of the island, it may be possible to explore internal social 176

14 HUMAN REMAINS FROM TYLOS TOMBS and regional stratification and its effects on the human biology of the time. Acknowledgements Tim Mackrell of the Anthropology Department, University of Auckland, provided the photographs and Seline McNamee prepared Figure 1. My thanks to both of them. Thanks are also due to Flemming Højlund and those of the other teams (German and Bahrain) for the invitation to research these remains. References 1. Bass W. Human Osteology. Missouri: Missouri Archaeological Society, Buikstra J & Ubelaker D. Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Fayetteville: Arkansas Archeological Society, Meindl R, Lovejoy O, Mensforth R & Walker R. A revised method of age determination using the os pubis, with a review and tests of accuracy of other current methods of pubic symphyseal aging. AJPA 68: 1985: Lovejoy C, Meindl R, Pryzbeck T & Mensforth R. Chronological metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium: a new method for the determination of adult skeletal age at death. AJPA 68: 1985: Meindl T & Lovejoy C. Ectocranial suture closure: a revised method for the determination of skeletal age at death based on the lateral-anterior sutures. AJPA 68: 1985: Buikstra & Ubelaker, Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. 7. Buikstra & Ubelaker, Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. 8. Bass, Human Osteology. 9. Littleton J & Frøhlich B. An analysis of dental pathology from historic Bahrain. Paléorient 15: 1989: Scott E. Dental wear scoring technique. AJPA 51: 1979: Littleton J. Skeletons and Social Composition: Bahrain 250 BC 250 AD. Oxford: Tempus Reparatum, Lombard P & Salles J-F, eds. La nécropole de Janussan (Bahrain). Lyon: CNRS, Littleton, Skeletons and Social Composition. 14. Herling A. Archaeological Research at Karannah and Saar (1993). Manama: Bahraini-German Excavations, Abdullah Hassan, pers. com. 16. Littleton J. Excavation of a Tylos Cemetery in Bahrain: A Preliminary Report. JOS 11: 2000: Herling, Archaeological Research at Karannah and Saar. 18. Littleton, Skeletons and Social Composition. 19. Lombard & Salles, La nécropole de Janussan (Bahrain). 20. Jackes M. Paleodemography: problems and techniques. In: Saunders S & Katzenberg M, eds. Skeletal Biology of Past Peoples: Research Methods. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1992: Bass, Human Osteology. 22. Bass, Human Osteology. 23. The callibrated C14 dates for DS3 span 381 BC ± 281 to AD 599 ± 144, those from Sar Mound 5 are from 220 BC ± 135 to AD 256 ± 57 (Littleton, Skeletons and Social Composition). 24. Ortner D & Putschar W. Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian, Stuart-Macadam P. Porotic hyperostosis: a new perspective. AJPA 87: 1992: Littleton, Skeletons and Social Composition. 27. El Najjar M. Maize, malaria and the anemias in the pre-columbian new world. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 20: 1976: Littleton, Skeletons and Social Composition. 29. Scrimshaw J, Taylor C & Gordon J. Interactions of Nutrition and Infection. Geneva: WHO, Daggy R. Malaria in Oases of Eastern Saudi Arabia. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 8: 1959: Littleton, Skeletons and Social Composition. 32. Ortner & Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions. 33. Kelley M & Micozzi M. Rib lesions in chronic pulmonary tuberculosis. AJPA 65: 1984: Kelley & Micozzi, Rib lesions in chronic pulmonary tuberculosis. 35. Roberts C. Paleopathology: A Review. Revue d Archéologie et de Paléontologie 8: 1990: Ortner & Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions. 37. Littleton, Skeletons and Social Composition. 38. Ortner & Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions. 39. Hansen H. Investigations in a Shi ite Village in Bahrain. Copenhagen: National Museum of Denmark, Musaiger A. The state of food and nutrition in the Arabian Gulf Countries. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics 54: 1987:

15 J. LITTLETON 41. Ortner & Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions. 42. Jurmain R. Paleoepidemiology of trauma in a prehistoric central California population. In: Ortner D & Aufderheide A, eds. Human Paleopathology: Current Syntheses and Future Options. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1991: Littleton J. Articulating the Past: An Osteosocial Analysis. PhD thesis submitted to the Australian National University, Ortner & Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions. 45. Rogers J. Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in ancient populations. Proc. 4th European Meeting of the Paleopathology Association 1982: Frøhlich B, Ortner D & Al Khalifa H. Human disease in the Ancient Middle East. Dilmun 14: 1989: Littleton J. The Paleopathology of Skeletal Fluorosis. AJPA 109: 1999: Littleton & Frøhlich, An analysis of dental pathology. 49. Littleton J & Frøhlich B. Fisheaters and farmers: Dental pathology in the Arabian Gulf. AJPA 92: 1993: Lukacs J. Dental Paleopathology: Methods for reconstructing dietary patterns. In: Iscan M & Kennedy K, eds. Reconstruction of Life from the Skeleton. New York: AR Liss, 1989: Littleton, The Paleopathology of Skeletal Fluorosis. 52. Littleton, Skeletons and Social Composition. 53. Larsen C. The early environment and hydrology of Ancient Bahrain. In: Potts DT, ed. Dilmun: New Studies in the Archaeology and Early History of Bahrain. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1983: Potts DT. Reflections on the history and archaeology of Bahrain. JAOS 105: 1985: Salles J-F. The Arab-Persian Gulf under the Seleucids. In: Kuhurt A & Sherwin-White S, eds. Hellenism in the East. London: Duckworth, 1987: Larsen, The early environment. 57. Arrian. History of Alexander and India. 2: Athenaeus. Deipnosophistai. 3: Pliny. Natural History. 12: 21: Theophrastus. Historia Plantarum Salles, The Arab-Persian Gulf under the Seleucids. 62. Nodelman S. A Preliminary History of Characene. Berytus XIII: 1960: Potts DT. The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Salles J-F. Bahrain, from Alexander the Great to the Sassanians. In: Lombard P, ed. Bahrain: the Civilisation of the Two Seas. Paris: Institut du Monde Arabe, 1999: Salles, The Arab-Persian Gulf under the Seleucids. 66. Salles J-F. Achaemenid and Hellenistic trade in the Indian Ocean. In: Reade JE, ed. The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul International, 1996: Potts, The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity. 68. Herling, Archaeological Research at Karannah and Saar. 69. Herling A. Necropoli and Burial Customs in the Tylos Era. In: Lombard, Bahrain: the Civilisation of the Two Seas: Salles, The Arab-Persian Gulf under the Seleucids. 71. Larsen C. Holocene Land Use on the Bahrain Islands. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Salles, The Arab-Persian Gulf under the Seleucids: Salles, The Arab-Persian Gulf under the Seleucids: Salles J-F. Le Golfe entre le proche et l extrême orient à l époque hellénistique. Unpubd. ms., Littleton J. Ethnicity or political ecology: making sense of the Bahrain bones. In: Olijdam E & Spoor R, eds. Intercultural Relations between South and Southwest Asia: Studies in Commemoration of ECL During- Caspers ( ). Oxford: Archaeopress, in press. 76. Jackes, Paleodemography: problems and techniques. 77. Littleton, Skeletons and Social Composition. 78. Littleton, Skeletons and Social Composition. 79. Littleton, Skeletons and Social Composition. Appendix: individual grave descriptions and inventory Pylon T158 Mound 1 Grave: 985.AG Skeleton: 985.AE Position within grave: The body was laid supine, in an extended position. The face was originally upwards but has slumped onto the left shoulder, probably during decomposition. Both arms were lying alongside the body with hands 178

16 HUMAN REMAINS FROM TYLOS TOMBS placed over the hip joint. The grave was narrow and the body was placed much closer to the north wall than the south wall. The arms were also very close into the body with slight hunching of the shoulders. Condition of remains: Despite the apparent completeness of the remains they are extremely fragmentary and the condition of the bone is fair. It may be that the grave was more subject to damp than many of the other graves at the site. Inventory (i ¼ incomplete): Occipital 1 Parietal 1 Frontal 1 1 Temporal 1 Facial bones 1 Teeth 7 Postcranium: Scapula 1 Clavicle 1 1 Humerus Radius Ulna Carpals 10 Metacarpals 8 Phalanges (hand) 19* Ribs 10 Sternum 1 Manubrium 1 Cervical vertebrae 4 Thoracic vertebrae 1 Lumbar vertebrae 5 i Sacrum Innominate 1 Femur Patella 1 1 Tibia Fibula Calcaneus 1 Talus 1 1 Tarsals 4 Metatarsals 4 (*including feet) Measurements: Humerus: Head Diameter Vertical R 47 Transverse R 43 Femur: Head Diameter R 47.5 Subtrochanteric ML 35 AP 28 Bicondylar Breadth R 84.5 Age and sex: Age: Middle-old adult (35+) based on sacroauricular surface, coronal suture fused (not obliterated), temporal suture unfused. Sex: Male (pelvic indicators, size of mastoid, femoral head diameter). Observations: While the appendicular skeleton shows no evidence of osteoarthritis, the lower-mid thoracic vertebrae have slight lipping of the vertebral bodies indicative of degenerative joint disease. The lack of change, however, suggests that this individual is towards the younger end of the age range estimate. There is no other evidence of pathology on the skeleton. The anterior teeth (central incisors, right canines, and left mandibular first premolar) are moderately worn (4 5) and all have hypoplasic defects on the mid lower crowns. The left mandibular first premolar also has a small caries on the occlusal surface of the tooth. Mound 2 Grave: 985.AR Skeleton: 985.AS Position within grave: Fragmentary remains found disarranged on plaster ledge on southeastern corner of grave. Completely disarticulated. Some also spread near bottom of grave. Condition of remains: The bone is in fair condition but quite fragmentary. 179

17 J. LITTLETON Inventory (i ¼ incomplete): Frontal Temporal 1 1 Teeth 1 Postcranium: Clavicle 1 Humerus 1 Ulna Metacarpals 3* Phalanges (hand) 5* Ribs 4 i Thoracic vertebrae 9** Femur * Includes bones of feet; ** unfused arches Measurements: Humerus: Maximum length (80) mm Femur: Maximum length (95) mm Age and sex: Age: c.12 months (dental development, long bone length) Observations: These remains were highly fragmentary and no other observations were possible. 985.AU These are some fragmentary remains found east of grave AR. They include approximately 50 fragments from an adult skeleton all approximately 5 cm in length. The fragments were in very poor condition, salt-encrusted and slightly mineralized. The attribution of adult is based upon the cortical thickness of the long bone fragments. Grave: 985.BH Skeleton: 985.BI Position within grave: The body was laid in an extended position, supine. The arms were laid alongside the body, hands palm down with the right hand upon the right upper thigh and the left arm slightly bent and the hand above the hip joint. The head was resting on its right side, face tilted down towards the right shoulder. The bones appear undisturbed. Condition of remains: The skeleton is in good condition but many of the remains are fragmentary. Inventory (i ¼ incomplete): Occipital 1 Parietal 1 1 Frontal 1 Temporal 1 Facial bones Mandible 1 1 Teeth 16 Postcranium: Scapula 1 1 Clavicle 1 1 Humerus 1 Radius Ulna Carpals 13 Metacarpals 10 Phalanges (hand) 24 Ribs 16 Sternum 1 Manubrium 1 Cervical vertebrae 7 Thoracic vertebrae 11 Lumbar vertebrae 5 Sacrum 1 Innominate 1 Femur Patella 1 Tibia Fibula Calcaneus 1 Talus 1 1 Tarsals 10 Metatarsals 7 180

18 HUMAN REMAINS FROM TYLOS TOMBS Measurements: Humerus: Maximum Length L 335 Head Diameter Vertical L 48.5 Transverse L 44 Epicondylar Breadth L 62 Femur: Head Diameter R 46.5 Subtrochanteric ML 34 AP 29 Midshaft ML 28.5 AP 31 Age and sex: Age: Middle adult (c.35 49?) (sacroauricular surface, cranial suture closure) Sex: Male (pelvic indicators, cranial indicators, femoral head diameter) Observations: There is no evidence of pathology on the appendicular skeleton of this male, but the fourth cervical, fourth, fifth and twelfth thoracic vertebrae have slight osteoarthritic lipping on the vertebral bodies. In addition the vertebral arches of the twelfth thoracic and the lumbar vertebrae have osteophytes developing around the articular processes. Unusually in the left orbit unhealed mild cribra orbitalia was observed but there are no other signs of porotic hyperostosis on the skeleton. The anterior teeth are moderately worn (4-6) while the posterior teeth show only slight degrees of wear. The maxillary second molars, left first molar have caries, as does the left mandibular third molar. The right mandibular second molar has also been lost antemortem with subsequent migration of the right third molar. Most of the teeth have one hypoplasic defect on the mid-crown. Grave: 985.I Skeleton: 985.AL Position within grave: The body was laid in the grave in a supine, extended position. The head was resting on its right side, face tilted down towards the body. The torso was slightly crooked with the right shoulder higher than the left. The right arm lay alongside the body, while the left arm rested partly on the body with the left hand resting on the upper left thigh. The hips were slightly twisted so that the left hip was higher than the right and the right foot rested partly upon the left foot. Condition of remains: The bone is in fair condition but very fragmentary. Inventory (i ¼ incomplete): Occipital Parietal 1 Frontal Temporal 1 Mandible Teeth 1 Postcranium: Clavicle Radius Ulna Carpals 12 Metacarpals 6 Phalanges (hand) 19 Ribs 9 Cervical vertebrae 2 Thoracic vertebrae 4 Lumbar vertebrae 5 Sacrum 1 Innominate 1 Femur Tibia Fibula Talus 1 Tarsals 7 Metatarsals 6 Phalanges 25 Measurements: Femur: Head Diameter L (41) Midshaft Diameter AP 25 ML

19 J. LITTLETON Age and sex: Age: Young Adult (c.20 25) (iliac crest fusing, medial clavicle fusing, thoracic vertebral rings unfused, third molar erupted) Sex: Female? (pelvic indicators, mastoid) Observations: There is no evidence of skeletal pathology. The mandibular right third molar has been lost antemortem and it appears that the bone was resorbing at the time of death. The single tooth found was the right mandibular canine, which has a slight-moderate degree of wear (4) and three hypoplasic defects on the mid-lower crown. 985.BM This was a surface find, below the mound. It is a single left mandibular second molar with only a slight degree of wear (2). Mound 3 Grave: 985.AA Skeleton: 985.R Position within grave: The upper two-thirds of the body were extremely fragmented so that position could only be inferred from the lower legs. The position of the legs, parallel and supine, indicate that the body was probably buried in an extended position. Condition of remains: These remains are extremely fragmentary but the bone itself is in good condition. Inventory (i ¼ incomplete): Parietal 1 Frontal Temporal 1 Teeth 11 Postcranium: Clavicle 1 Humerus Radius Ulna Carpals 5 Ribs 8+ Cervical vertebrae 2 Thoracic vertebrae 10 Lumbar vertebrae 2 Sacrum 1 Innominate Femur Patella 1 Tibia Fibula Calcaneus 1 1 Talus 1 1 Tarsals 10 Metatarsals 10 Phalanges 28 Measurements: Humerus: Head Diameter Vertical L 45 Transverse L 39 Epicondylar Breadth L 60 Femur: Head Diameter L 45.5 Bicondylar Breadth L (75) Age and sex: Age: Middle adult (c yrs) on basis of sacroauricular surface, slight to moderate dental wear. Sex: Male (based on pelvic indicators, plus femoral head diameter). Observations: While many of the joint surfaces are missing or fragmentary, those that could be observed (vertebral, shoulder, elbow, knee, ankle) had no evidence of joint degeneration. The only evidence of skeletal pathology is slight porosity on the distal diaphysis of the right humerus and the proximal radius. This superficial porosity is evidence of an 182

20 HUMAN REMAINS FROM TYLOS TOMBS infectious condition, possibly secondary to surface trauma. It was mild, however, although still active at the time of death. The distal epiphysis of the left humerus has failed to fuse completely and remains unfused in the area of the septal aperture. Given the absence of any sign of trauma or healed infection, it is possible that this is a congenital defect. With the exception of the mandibular right canine and second molars, all of the teeth come from the maxilla. The second and third molars are only slightly worn (2 3), while wear on the anterior teeth is more severe (4 5). Hypoplasic defects are common: two on the lower third of the right central incisor, four on each of the canines in the mid-lower crown and one on the right second premolar. Postcranium: Humerus Radius Carpals 6 Metacarpals 2 Phalanges (hand) 8 Ribs 11 Sternum 1 Cervical vertebrae 7 i Thoracic vertebrae 12 i Lumbar vertebrae 5 i Sacrum Innominate 1 Femur Patella 1 1 Tibia Fibula Calcaneus 1 1 Talus 1 1 Tarsals 7 Metatarsals 9 Phalanges 20 Mound 4 Grave: 985.BP Skeleton: 985.BR Position within grave: The body was laid in an extended position, supine. The head was facing upwards, and the mandible has since fallen down onto the chest. Hands were placed palm downwards beside or partly upon the upper leg. Condition of remains: The remains are in fair condition but fragmentary. Inventory (i ¼ incomplete): Occipital 1 Parietal Frontal 1 1 Temporal 1 Mandible 1 Teeth 12 Measurements: Femur: Midshaft Diameter ML 28 AP 30 Bicondylar L (80) Age and sex: Age: Young-middle adult? (sacroauricular surface, lambdoidal and sagital sutures unfused, coronal fusing). Sex: Male (pelvic indicators, mastoid height) Observations: No skeletal pathology was observed, although the remains are very fragmentary. The right mandibular first molar is missing antemortem. The maxillary second molars have a slight degree of wear, both with caries on the occlusal surface. The remaining maxillary teeth (right first premolar and central incisors) show moderate wear (4 6) and small calculus deposits. The mandibular anterior teeth (second incisors, canines, and left first incisor) are slightly less worn (3 4). The left mandibular third molar has a severe carious defect on the 183