Health profiles of a Bronze Age population from northeastern Hungary

Transcription

1 ANNALES HISTORICO-NATURALES MUSEI NATIONALIS HUNGARICI Volume 88. Budapest pp Health profiles of a Bronze Age population from northeastern Hungary D. H. UBELAKER 1 & I. PAP 2 Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C, USA Department of Anthropology, Hungarian Natural History Museum H-1062 Budapest, Bajza u. 39, Hungary UBELAKER, D. H. & PAP, 1. (1996): Health profiles of a Bronze Age population from northeastern Hungary. - Annls hist.-nat. Mus. natn. hung. 88: Abstract - To initiate a detailed study of the history of health conditions in ancient Hungary, 593 individuals from the Bronze Age site of Tiszafüred were examined. This analysis represents the initial data collection in a planned larger study. However, comparison with the existing literature suggests that this Bronze Age sample experienced increased mortality over later populations, relatively low frequencies of dental hypoplasia as reported in other samples, low frequencies of dental caries and alveolar abscesses, cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis of the cranial vault, trauma, periosteal lesions and lines of arrested growth. These data supplement the existing published record of these conditions in ancient Hungary and establish a baseline for the comparison planned with the analysis of additional samples from different time periods within this geographic area of northeastern Hungary. With 14 figures and 8 tables. In recent years, research in the skeletal biology of archaeologically recovered human remains increasingly has shifted toward biocultural population studies. Such work requires large samples of representative skeletons but offers the opportunity to examine past disease patterns and explore their cultural correlations. Recent work with well documented skeletal samples from the Americas has suggested a broad pattern of temporal change involving increasing morbidity and mortality (ARMELAGOS etal. 1991, COHEN & ARMELAGOS 1984, LARSEN & MILNER 1994, VERA- NO & UBELAKER 1992). This trend begins long before European contact, but was greatly exacerbated by it (UBELAKER 1994). Although data from throughout the Americas show significant regional variability, collectively they indicate this largely negative pattern likely relates to cultural changes in subsistence and problems associated with increasing population size and density. The cultural shift from hunting, gathering and fishing to agriculture and animal domestication, produced not only dietary changes, but also led to less population mobility and greater population density. Such changes likely created sanitation problems and other conditions more favourable to the spread of disease. Many of the same conditions thought to be responsible for increasing health problems in American samples, likely affected European populations as well. Like American populations, European people gradually experienced increases in population size, density, reliance upon agriculture, and sedentism. Although these changes occurred earlier in

2 European populations and of course the people were different genetically, many aspects are similar to the American experience. In 1993, we initiated a project to examine long term health changes in the northeastern part of Hungary. This area was selected for study because large, excavated, representative skeletal samples from this area are available at the Department of Anthropology of the Hungarian Natural History Museum in Budapest. Representing the major temporal/chronological periods in the human history of Hungary, they provide a unique opportunity to examine the evolution of health and disease. The first sample analyzed in this project is the large Bronze Age sample of Tiszafüred (CSALOG 1965, KOVÁCS 1967, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975). This sample was selected for study because of its large size, its location within the area of Hungary targeted by the project (Fig. 1) and the fact that it has not been thoroughly studied previously. The Tiszafüred-Majoros series belongs to the culture named Füzesabony of the Middle Bronze Age of Hungary (represented by skeletons of contracted position) and to the tumulus culture of the Late Bronze Age (represented by biritual burials: graves with skeletons of contracted position and graves with cremated skeletons). The Bronze Age in Hungary is generally dated between 1900 and 800 BC. Within the Bronze Age, the Early Bronze Age dates from 1900 to 1700 BC. The Middle Bronze Age dates from 1700 to 1300 BC. The Late Bronze Age dates from about 1300 to 800 BC (KOVÁCS 1975, 1977, BONA 1987). During the great migrations at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millenia BC the first advanced agricultural groups of the Bronze Age reached the Carpathian Basin and settled down there. The people of the first centuries of the Bronze Age (Early Bronze Age) co- Fig. 1. Location of Tiszafüred within Hungary

3 ming from the Balkan region absorbed the local population of the Copper Age and introduced a more productive economy of agriculture and cattle breeding. The centuries of the Middle Bronze Age were a time of peaceful development. The villages found in several layers (tell-settlement) indicate peaceful residence in one place. The people of the Bronze Age lived in villages of various sizes, usually situated on the banks of rivers or on the slopes of hills. The tools and the species of the grain grown are known. In animal husbandry, the horse had a growing importance. From the beginning of the 2nd millenium BC the four-wheeled cart was known. Hunting and fishing still played an important role in the life of the Bronze Age people (KOVÁCS 1978). One radiocarbon date was obtained directly from the bone samples of the Middle Bronze Age. Collagen extracted with alkali from a human bone sample from grave Nr 18 was radiocarbon dated by the Beta Analytic Inc. Laboratory in Miami, Florida. In the procedures of this laboratory, the bone sample was first examined for softness. The sample was then washed in deionized water and crushed. The mineral fraction of bone apatite was removed through the repeated application of dilute cold HCl. Any rootlets present were removed. When necessary, alkali (NaOH) was applied to ensure that secondary organic acids were removed. Analysis of the sample submitted produced a conventional radiocarbon date of 3020 years plus or minus 50 years before present (uncalibrated). The calibration date was cal BC 1400 with a 95% probability range of cal BC 1400 to 1110 and a 68% probability range of between cal BC 1315 and This calibrated date falls within the range suggested above for the Middle Bronze Age. PROCEDURES The remains associated with each burial number were stored in paper wrapping within wooden storage crates. After unpacking, all remains were superficially cleaned and organized on the examining table in anatomical order. A careful skeletal inventory was conducted according to the guidelines of BuiKSTRA & UBELAKER (1994). The following bones were scored as not present (0), more than 75% complete (1), between 25% and 75% complete (2) and less than 25% complete (3): all cranial bones, manubrium, gladiolus, sacrum, scapula, bones of the pelvis, patella, ribs and all long bones. Also, five components of long bones were scored separately: proximal epiphysis, proximal one third of diaphysis, middle third of diaphysis, distal one third of diaphysis and distal epiphysis. Relatively complete centra of the vertebral groups were counted. The dental inventory classified each permanent and deciduous tooth into one of the following six categories: (1) present, but not in occlusion, (2) present, fully developed in occlusion, (3) missing with no associated alveolar bone, (4) missing with alveolus resorbed indicating premortem loss, (5) missing, with no alveolar resorption indicating postmortem loss, and (6) incompletely formed teeth, classified according to the system of MOORREES et al. ( 1963a, /;). The MOORREES et al. (1963a, b) system classifies the stage of crown and root formation of each tooth into one of 14 developmental stages. This classification can then be utilized to estimate chronological age at death using published data of MOORREES et al. (1963a, b) and others.

4 Observations on pathological or stress conditions were limited to those that have proven useful in elucidating those conditions in other populations. Dental traits, both permanent and deciduous, include enamel defects, dental caries, and alveolar abscesses. Other conditions include cribra orbitale, porotic hyperostosis, vertebral osteophytosis, trauma, abnormal periosteal bone apposition, and midshaft circumference of the tibia and femur. Intact long bones were measured for stature calculation. Enamel defects were classified as (1) linear horizontal grooves, (2) linear vertical grooves, (3) linear horizontal pits, (4) nonlinear arrays of pits, (5) single pits, (6) discrete boundary hypocalcification and (7) diffuse boundary hypocalcification. The colours of hypocalcifications were classified as (1) yellow, (2) cream/white, (3) orange or (4) brown. Defects were recorded only if they could clearly be distinguished from normal developmental variation and postmortem changes. Dental carious lesions were classified as (1) occlusal, (2) interproximal surface, (3) smooth surface, (4) cervical caries, (5) root caries, (6) large caries, and (7) non-carious pulp exposure. Dental caries were recorded when they were at least one mm in diameter and presented clear evidence of disease and tissue collapse. Abscesses were classified by their location in either the buccal or lingual bone surface. In all cases, abscesses were noted in association with existing teeth or with those obviously missing postmortem. Observations on the presence or absence of abscess were not recorded in association with teeth missing antemortem when the alveolus was extensively resorbed. Both cribra orbitale and porotic hyperostosis were characterized by side as fine porosity, extensive porosity, and/or bone deposits. These conditions were recorded as being present only when the porosity and/or bone deposits clearly could be distingished from normal variation and postmortem defects. Vertebral osteophytosis was scored as the maximum expression within each vertebral group (cervical, thoracic, lumbar). Centrum margins were classified as rounded, sharpened, slight extensions (osteophytes), or extreme extensions. Trauma and infections were described individually by expression and by bone location. As with other pathological conditions, infection was recorded as present only when the lesions clearly could be distinguished from normal skeletal variation and postmortem change. Evidence of infection usually took the form of fine periosteal bone deposited upon the normal cortical bone surface. The extent of remodeling of these deposits provides information about the relative timing of the deposits prior to death. Sex and age at death were estimated using standard non-invasive techniques (UBE LAKER 1989). Whenever possible, sex was estimated from pelvis morphology, especially the form of the pubis. In the absence or poor preservation of the pelvic bones, sex was estimated from general bone size. Whenever possible, age at death of juvenile individuals was estimated from the extent of dental formation. Other criteria employed include dental eruption, and bone size. Adult age at death was estimated from the morphology of the pubic symphysis when that bone was available. Other criteria employed included the extent of epiphyseal union, dental attrition, dental loss, morphology of the auricular area of the ilium, vertebral osteophytosis, and other general age indicators of the skeleton.

5 RESULTS The skeletal remains of 593 individuals were examined in the Tiszafüred - Majoros sample. All individuals in the museum from this site were examined. Of these, 169 were thought to be male, 176 female, 71 adult of unknown sex and 177 immature. Table 1 presents a life table reconstructed from the estimated ages at death. To construct this life table, the age at death of each skeleton was estimated as exactly as possible and assigned to the appropriate age interval. These intervals consisted of the one year from birth to age one, four years between ages one and five, and five years for all successive age intervals. For many adult remains, poor preservation precluded a precise estimate. Such remains were assigned a broad age range depending upon the available evidence. For life table construction, the midpoint of the age range was used to assign the skeleton to the appropriate interval. In the life table, the column D x contains the actual number of skeletons assigned to each age interval. The column d x contains the percentage values of individual representation in each interval. The column l x describes survivorship entering each age interval. The value q x represents the probability of death within each age interval. The following two columns, L x and T x represent statistics needed to calculate life expectancy. L x represents the total number of years lived by all individuals during each age interval. T x represents the total years remaining in the lifetime of all individuals entering each age interval. The final column lists the life expectancy of an individual entering each age interval. For example, in the Tiszafüred sample, a newborn had a life expectancy of years. If an infant survived the first year of life, it could expect to live an additional Table 1. Life table for Tiszafüred, reconstructed from estimates of age at death from the skeleton X Dx dx lx q x Lx Tx Cx

6 years. A young adult at age 15 could expect to live years or until about the age of 32. Relatively few persons lived beyond 50 years, with maximum age estimated at about 65 years. Details on life table construction are available by ACSÁDI & NEMESKÉRI (1970) and UBELAKER (1989). Figure 2 presents the mortality data of Table 1 in the form of a mortality curve. This curve documents relatively high infant mortality during the first five years of life, low mortality during the childhood years between 5 and 20 and then a maximum adult death rate between 25 and 30. The curve is somewhat unusual in that the mortality figure for the first year is lower than that between ages 1 and 5. This could reflect postmortem preservation factors. The sex difference of 169 males and 176 females is small, suggesting that both sexes were evenly represented in the sample. Note that 71 adults were so incomplete or fragmentary that sex could not be estimated reliably. No attempt was made to estimate the sex of immature individuals since until maturity, sex differences are not sufficiently pronounced in the skeleton to allow accurate prediction. Dental hypoplasia Evidence of enamel defects largely consisted of linear enamel hypoplasia (Fig. 3). Such defects were found in 19 of permanent teeth, for an overall very low frequency of 0.5%. Lesions occurred in 8 of 1858 maxillary teeth (0.43%) and 11 of 1947 mandibular teeth (0.57%). The lesions were found in maxillary right first premolars (2.4 %), maxillary right canines (1.7%), maxillary right lateral incisors (0.8%), maxillary left canines (1.9%), mandibular right second premolars (0.74%), mandibular right first premolars (0.7%), mandibular right canines (0.9%), mandibular left lateral incisors (1.0%), mandibular left canines (1.9%), mandibular left first premolars (1.6%), mandibular left second premolars (0.7%), mandibular left first molars (0.6%), and mandibular left second molars (0.7%) (Table 2). dx 20 T Age in years Fig. 2. Mortality curve reconstructed from the Tiszafüred sample

7 Anni Table 2. Frequency of dental hypoplasia in Tiszafüred dentitions. Values for each tooth type are the number of teeth with hypoplasia compared with the number of teeth examined Right Maxilla M3 M2 Ml PM2 PM1 C C PM1 PM2 Ml M2 M3 Totals % Males 0/36 0/56 0/66 0/60 1/58 1/55 0/44 0/39 0/35 0/42 1/46 0/55 0/53 0/58 0/43 0/37 3/ Females 0/32 0/46 0/52 0/53 1/43 0/42 0/47 0/35 0/36 0/42 0/34 0/40 0/46 0/45 0/33 0/36 1/ /11 0/17 0/47 0/26 1/24 1/24 1/29 0/22 0/20 0/28 1/25 0/26 0/28 0/49 0/26 0/11 4/ Total 0/79 0/119 0/165 0/139 3/125 2/121 1/120 0/96 0/91 0/1 12 2/105 0/121 0/127 0/152 0/102 0/84 8/ % Mandible Right Left M3 M 2 Ml PM2 PM1 C C PM1 PM2 Ml M2 M3 Totals % 1 Males 0/45 0/54 0/62 0/58 0/57 0/48 0/49 0/39 0/37 0/47 1/54 1/61 1/64 1/73 1/65 0/43 5/ ' Females 0/35 0/51 0/51 0/52 0/54 0/37 0/38 0/34 0/31 0/33 0/35 0/44 0/49 0/50 0/53 0/36 0/683 0 =:? 0/14 0/30 0/53 1/25 1/23 1/21 0/29 0/24 0/16 1/19 1/17 1/20 0/24 0/51 0/29 0/13 6/ Total 0/94 0/135 0/166 1/135 1/134 1/106 0/116 0/97 0/84 1/99 2/106 2/125 1/137 1/174 1/147 0/92 11/ a % a- c Left onze A pc 0\ to -J -J

8 Hypoplastic teeth were slightly more common in males than in females. In the maxilla, hypoplasia was found in 0.38% of males and 0.15% of female teeth. In the mandible, 0.58% of male teeth were hypoplastic while none of the 683 female teeth showed the lesions. Dental caries Of the 3903 permanent teeth sufficiently well preserved to be examined for dental caries, 123 (3.15%) were carious. These lesions were evenly distributed between the maxilla and mandible and between males and females (Table 3). In the maxilla, 57 (3.07%) of 1858 teeth were carious. In the mandible, 66 (3.23%) of 2045 teeth were carious. In the maxilla, male frequency was 3.62% while that of females 3.64%. In the mandible, male frequency was 3.70% while that of females was 4.16%. Of the 123 carious lesions, the majority (51) were cervical caries, involving both the crown and root at their junction. Of the remaining lesions, 26 were root caries, 18 were occlusal caries, 18 were large caries involving destruction of much of the tooth, and 10 were interproximal crown caries. Alveolar abscesses Alveolar abscesses were relatively uncommon in the Tiszafüred sample. Of 4032 observations for abscesses, only 17 (0.42%) were noted (Table 4). Abscesses were slightly more common in maxillary teeth (0.9%) than in mandibular (0.1%). They were evenly distributed between males (1.2% maxillary. 0.2% mandibular) and females (0.9% maxillary, 0.1% mandibular). Abscesses were found associated with 3.5% of maxillary right first molars, 2.8% of maxillary right second premolars, 2.8% of maxillary right first premolars, 1.0% of maxillary right canines, 1.0% of maxillary left canines, 1.9% of maxillary left first premolars, 0.7% of mandibular right second molars, and 1.2% of mandibular left first molars. The abscesses were caused by bacteria entering the tooth through exposure of the pulp cavity. Such exposure was created either by destruction of the protective tooth structure by dental caries or by excessive occlusal attrition (Figs 4 and 5). Antemortem tooth loss Teeth were scored as missing antemortem if the tooth was not present and the corresponding area of the alveolus showed clear evidence of post-loss remodeling. Of 4858 observations for this feature, 229 teeth (4.71%) were lost antemortem. The frequency of antemortem loss was 3.88% in the maxilla and a slightly higher 5.45% in the mandible. Females showed slightly greater tooth loss than males. In the maxilla, antemortem tooth loss was found in 4.25% of males compared to 5.38% of females. In the mandible, loss was found in 5.09% of male teeth compared to 7.51 % of females. In the maxilla, tooth loss per tooth type ranged from only 2.7% in the right lateral incisors to 5.8% in the left third molars. In the mandible, tooth loss per tooth type ranged from a low of 0.7% in left canines to 16.4% in left third molars. In general, the posterior molars and premolars showed a greater frequency of tooth loss than the anterior teeth, reflecting largely their greater vulnerability to dental caries. Detailed information antemortem loss for each tooth type is presented in Table 5.

9 Table 3. Frequency of carious teeth. Values for each tooth group represent the number of carious teeth compared with the number of teeth examined Ri ght Maxilla M3 M2 Ml PM2 PM1 C C PM1 PM2 Ml M2 M3 Totals % Males 1/37 2/56 6/67 3/61 1/59 0/57 0/46 0/40 0/37 1/43 0/47 1/55 3/55 4/60 5/43 2/38 29/ Females 0/28 4/43 0/53 0/54 2/45 1/42 1/46 0/34 0/36 0/44 2/34 4/41 3/48 3/45 3/34 1/32 24/ ? 0/10 0/19 1/46 1/24 0/24 0/23 0/25 0/21 0/19 0/27 0/24 1/27 1/28 0/48 0/23 0/10 4/ Total 1/75 6/118 7/166 4/139 3/128 1/122 1/117 0/95 0/92 1/114 2/105 6/123 7/131 7/153 8/100 3/80 57/ % Left Right Mandible M3 M2 Ml PM2 PM1 C C PM1 PM2 Ml M2 M3 Totals % Males 4/46 5/60 3/66 1/62 0/60 1/51 2/52 0/40 0/36 1/49 1/55 0/63 2/66 4/76 6/66 3/44 33/ Females 0/37 4/55 4/53 3/57 1/56 0/40 0/43 0/38 0/36 0/39 1/38 1/49 1/51 5/56 7/58 4/40 31/ ? 0/13 0/27 1/52 0/24 0/25 0/19 0/30 0/26 0/17 0/18 0/21 0/22 1/23 0/50 0/28 0/12 2/ Total 4/96 9/142 8/171 4/143 1/141 1/1 10 2/125 0/104 0/89 1/106 2/114 1/134 4/140 9/182 13/152 7/96 66/ % Left

10 Table 4. Frequency of alveolar abscesses. Values for each tooth group represent the number of abscesses observed compared with the number of observations for abscesses Maxilla Right Left M3 M2 Ml PM2 PM1 C C PM1 PM2 Ml M2 M3 Totals % Males 0/40 0/46 4/49 2/50 1/49 0/47 0/47 0/46 0/49 0/48 1/49 1/50 0/50 0/49 0/43 0/41 9/ Females 0/21 0/22 0/39 1/44 2/43 1/41 0/39 0/38 0/34 0/32 0/33 1/33 0/35 0/35 0/32 0/29 5/ ? 0/6 0/16 0/27 0/15 0/17 0/16 0/21 0/20 0/20 0/21 0/21 0/21 0/18 0/31 0/19 0/8 0/297 0 Total 0/67 0/84 4/115 3/109 3/109 1/104 0/107 0/104 0/103 0/101 1/103 2/104 0/103 0/115 0/94 0/78 14/ ) % Mandible Rij dit Left M3 M2 Ml PM2 PM1 C C PM1 PM2 Ml M2 M3 Totals % Males 0/60 0/68 0/68 0/69 0/71 0/72 0/72 0/72 0/72 0/73 0/72 0/74 0/73 2/74 0/71 0/63 2/ Females 0/51 1/61 0/62 0/65 0/68 0/69 0/64 0/63 0/60 0/60 0/58 0/60 0/58 0/57 0/56 0/52 1/ ? 0/10 0/17 0/31 0/17 0/16 0/18 0/23 0/24 0/28 0/28 0/24 0/23 0/22 0/34 0/20 0/9 0/344 0 Total 0/121 1/146 0/161 0/151 0/155 0/159 0/159 0/159 0/160 0/161 0/154 0/157 0/153 2/165 0/147 0/124 3/ %

11 Figs = Example of linear enamel hypoplasia in ; 4 = Extreme occlusal attrition creating exposure of the pulp cavity in ; 5 = Apical abscess resulting from extreme attrition shown in Fig. 4; 6 = Extensive porosity in cribra orbitale of the right orbit of ; 7 = Extensive porosity in cribra orbitale of the left orbit of

12 Table 5. Frequency of antemortem tooth loss. Values for each tooth group represent the number of teeth lost antemortem compared with the number of observations for possible tooth loss Maxilla Right Left M3 M2 Ml PM2 PMI C C PMI PM2 Ml M2 M3 Totals % Males 2/52 3/67 3/77 3/73 3/66 2/64 2/63 1/54 3/55 2/63 3/65 2/67 4/67 4/72 3/55 3/51 43/ Females 1/38 1/52 3/63 4/61 4/53 3/56 2/55 3/49 3/46 2/51 2/44 3/48 3/55 4/51 4/72 3/43 45/ ? 0/10 0/19 0/45 0/25 0/25 0/23 0/30 0/24 0/22 0/30 0/26 0/28 0/29 0/50 0/26 0/10 0/422 0 Total 3/100 4/138 6/85 7/159 7/144 5/143 4/148 4/127 6/123 4/144 5/135 5/143 7/151 8/173 7/153 6/104 88/ % Mandible Right Left M3 M2 Ml PM2 PMI C C PMI PM2 Ml M2 M3 Totals % Males 6/60 4/76 7/83 4/83 2/74 1/68 1/68 1/61 1/61 1/69 0/74 2/80 4/85 9/96 7/82 10/58 60/ Females 9/50 6/68 9/73 4/68 1/65 1/57 2/59 2/53 1/50 2/56 1/55 2/61 5/67 12/72 7/67 9/51 73/ /13 0/29 0/52 0/24 0/29 0/23 1/34 1/28 1/20 1/22 0/22 0/25 1/27 1/49 1/28 1/13 8/ Total 15/123 10/173 16/208 8/175 3/168 2/148 4/161 4/142 3/131 4/147 1/151 4/166 10/179 22/217 15/177 20/ / %

13 Deciduous teeth A total of 516 deciduous teeth were examined, 259 maxillary and 257 mandibular. No examples of carious lesions, hypoplasia, or alveolar abscesses were detected. Cribra orbitale Cribra orbitale represents an alteration of the superior surface of the inner orbit area. Within adults, cribra orbitale occurred in 7 (5.3%) of 132 left orbits and 10 (7.4%) of 135 right orbits. In males, only 3 (4.3%) of 70 right orbits of males had the trait. In females, it occurred in 4 (7.1%) of 56 left orbits and five (8.6%) of 58 right orbits. All but three of the adult expressions of cribra orbitale involved fine porosity. The remaining three examples (one male two female) were of extensive porosity. Cribra orbitale was much more common in subadults (Figs 6 and 7) than in adults. The trait was present in 17 (25%) left orbits and 20 (31%) right orbits. Of 68 observations of left orbits, 14 showed fine porosity, 2 extensive porosity, and one included new deposits of bone. Of 64 observations of right orbits, 17 were of fine porosity, one extensive porosity, and two of bone deposits. Porotic hyperostosis Evidence of porotic hyperostosis usually consists of porosity and/or new abnormal bone deposits on the bones of the cranial vault, especially the parietals. Within adults, the expression can take the form of well remodeled thickened bone. Of observations of 220 left parietals, and 218 right parietals, no examples of porotic hyperostosis were noted. However, of 115 observations of left and right subadult parietals, examples of porotic hyperostosis were found in four left (3.5%) and five right (4.3%) bones. Of the left examples, two were of fine porosity and two were of extensive porosity. Of five right examples, two were of fine porosity and three of extensive porosity. Vertebral osteophytosis Data on vertebral osteophytosis are presented in Table 6. Males and females show similar distributions of osteophytosis within the skeleton. In total, of 348 observations on all adult vertebral centra, 191 (54.9%) showed stage 0, 108 (31.0%) stage 1, 38 (10.9%) stage 2 and only 11 (3.2%) stage 3. Trauma Seventeen examples of trauma were found in 12 individuals of both sexes. Only one example was found in a subadult. The remaining 16 bones with trauma were from adults. The following describes individual examples. A well remodeled but grossly distorted fracture of the sternal quarter of two right central ribs was found in an adult male ( ). This individual also displayed well remodeled sharp force trauma on the anterior surface of the right distal humerus, just superior to olecranon. A well remodeled complete fracture of the proximal third of the right femur with slight dislocation is present within the adult male of

14 Table 6. Observations of the stage of vertebral osteophytosis in adult centra Bone Sex Vertebral stage Cervical male Thoracic male Lumbar male Cervical female Thoracic female Lumbar female Cervical unknown Thoracic unknown Lumbar unknown An adult female of displays bony union of the left proximal ulna and left distal humerus, likely due to trauma. The immature individual of displays a probable healed fracture of the left transverse process of a thoracic vertebra. A well remodeled complete fracture of the midshaft of the left clavicle was found in the adult male of A well remodeled depressed fracture approximately 7 mm in diameter is located in the right mid frontal area of the adult female of A likely case of sharp force trauma is located on the posterior portion of the left parietal near the midline of the adult male of The adult female of shows a fracture of the midshaft right femur (Fig. 8). The fracture is well remodeled, with shortening and posterior displacement of the inferior segment. The parietals of the adult male of show two small 5 mm diameter circular depressions on both sides of the anterior sagittal suture. They likely represent well remodeled depressed fractures. The adult male of displays a likely fracture of the right distal tibia, resulting in considerable thickened and remodeled bone. The distal anterior surface is very irregular. The adult of undetermined sex of displays a well remodeled Colles fracture of the right distal radius and right distal ulna, with posterior displacement of the distal segments (Figs 9 and 10). A well remodeled fracture of the distal third of the left radius (Fig. 1 1), with posterior displacement of the distal segment was found in the adult male of There are various ways to express the frequency of trauma in this sample. The ratio of the number of adult bones (16) with fractures to total adult individuals (416) is The ratio of bones with lesions (17) to total individuals of all ages (593) is The ratio of the number of adults with at least one example of trauma (11) to the total number

15 Figs = Well remodeled healed fracture of right femur of adult female of ; 9 = Anterior view of distal right radus with well remodeled Colles fracture from ; 10 = Posterior view of same bone as Fig. 9; 11 = Well remodeled fracture of the distal third of left radius from adult male of Annls hist.-nat. Mus. natu. hung. HH, /996

16 Table 7. Comparison of the number of bones with trauma to the total number ol bones in the sample Affected bone No. with lesions Total No. Fraction R distal ulna R ribs R femur, proximal third R distal humerus L proximal ulna L distal humerus Thoracic vertebra Frontal! L parietal R femur midshaft R parietal R distal tibia R distal radius L distal third radius L clavicle of adults (416) is The ratio of total individuals with at least one example of trauma (12) to the total number of individuals (593) is The ratio of the number of immature individuals and number of bones with trauma from immature individuals (1) to the number of immature individuals in the sample (177) is The frequency of affected bones, or even parts of bones can be calculated using data from the inventory. For example, one example of trauma was found on the distal third of the left radius. The inventory reveals that a total of 206 distal third segments of the left radius were present and sufficiently well preserved for observation of trauma. This suggests a frequency of trauma at that site of only Table 7 presents the actual site frequency of all examples of trauma. The frequencies range from only.0015 for the immature thoracic vertebra to a high of.0095 for the left clavicle. All of these values are well below those obtained comparing bone or affected individuals to total number of individuals. The detailed inventory allows greater precision in individual comparisons and thus more accurate frequencies to be calculated. Infection Evidence of infection consists of irregular bone deposits and porosity. In all cases, this bone is periosteal in origin. Although trauma or other causes can not be entirely eliminated, infection seems the most likely cause of the alterations. The following is an individual description of the examples found.

17 Adult male. Enlarged diaphyses of the sternal thirds of two central right ribs appear to have been caused by infection. Trauma may also have been involved Adult male. Well remodeled periosteal deposits are located on the medial and lateral surfaces of the distal ends of both tibiae Adult male. Periosteal bone deposits are located on the proximal end of the left fibula. Small well remodeled deposits are present on the inferior midshaft area of both clavicles and on the posterior surface of the proximal third of the diaphysis of the right fibula Adult male. Slightly remodeled periosteal lesions are present on the lateral surface of the midshaft of the right tibia, the medial surface of the left tibia midshaft, the posterior surface of the right femur midshaft and the medial surface of the left femur midshaft Female adult. Fine periosteal lesions are located on the left and right parietal near the midline Adult male. A slightly remodeled periosteal lesion is located on the medial surface near the distal end of the right fibula Adult female. The right temporal shows evidence of infection in the external auditory meatus area Adult female. Fine periosteal bone apposition showing slight remodeling is present on the medial surface of the proximal end of the right tibia Adult female. Slightly remodeled porosity is present on the left greater wing of the sphenoid Adult of undetermined sex. Irregular periosteal deposits are present on most of the lateral diaphysis of both tibiae Adult male. Slight periosteal bone deposits showing no remodeling are present on the medial surface of the right tibia diaphysis Adult of undetermined sex. Active porosity and new bone formation showing some remodeling are present on the distal end of the left fibula Adult male. A well remodeled circular lesion is present on the right parietal near the sagittal suture Adult female. A non-remodeled periosteal lesion is located on the left ischium, on the posterior medial side of the sciatic notch Adult male. Slightly remodeled periosteal lesions are present over much of the diaphysis of the left tibia and left fibula Adult male. Well remodeled periosteal deposits are present on the medial surface of the right distal fibula Adult male. Some periosteal new bone formation occurs on the right distal diaphyses of the right tibia and right fibula Adult male. New periosteal bone deposits with little remodeling are present on the right tibia medial diaphysis Adult male. Periosteal bone apposition is present on the distal right tibia Adult male. A well remodeled periosteal lesion is present on the medial surface of the diaphysis of a right tibia.

18 288 Ubelaker, D. H. & J. Pap Table 8. Comparison of the number of bones with periosteal lesions to the total number of bones in the sample Affected bone No. with lesions Total No. Fraction L tibia proximal L tibia middle L tibia distal R tibia proximal R tibia middle R tibia distal L fibula proximal L fibula middle L fibula distal R fibula proximal R fibula distal R femur middle L femur middle L clavile R clavile L sphenoid L pariental R pariental R temporal L ischium Central L ribs The above listing details likely evidence of infection in 34 bones from 22 individuals, all adults. Thus the ratio of affected bones (34) to total individuals in the sample (593) is.0573, affected bones (34) to adults in the sample (416).0817, affected individuals (22) to total individuals in the sample (593).0371 and affected individuals (22) to total adults in the sample (416) As in the previous discussion of trauma, the detailed inventory presents an opportunity to examine the frequency of periosteal lesions within the sample of individual bones. For example, periosteal lesions were found on the distal ends of five right tibias. The inventory reveals that a total of 321 distal right tibias were present in the sample and sufficiently well preserved to allow observations on the presence of periosteal lesions. Thus, the fraction of distal right tibias in the sample with lesions was Table 8 presents the fractions of individual bones showing periosteal lesions. These fractions vary from.0026 for the middle third of both left and right femora to a high of.0156 for the distal right tibia. In general, the highest values originate from the tibias and distal fibulas.

19 This reflects the anatomical vulnerability of the medial surface of the tibia and the distal end of the fibula near the outer body surface. Most other bones are located deep within the soft tissue and thus are more protected from infectious disease originating on the outer body surface. Other pathology Other pathological conditions were observed that can be reauiiy classified as either trauma or infection. The adult male of displays marked shortening of both Figs = Fusion of two lumbar vertebrae within adult female of ; 13 = Fusion of two pubic bones in the midline, , anterior view; 14 = Fusion of two pubic bones in the midline, , posterior view

20 humeri. Both proximal ends show extensive unusual well remodeled bone deposits with flattened heads. Both bones are symmetrical with slight posterior and medial displacement. This condition likely represents a case of abnormal metaphysis development (slipped epiphysis), complicated by subsequent arthritic involvement and possible trauma. The corresponding areas of the glenoid cavities of the scapulae show abnormal flattening. Maximum length of the left humerus is 277 mm. Some eburnation, suggesting cartilage destruction is present on the proximal left humerus. Another likely case of slipped epiphysis occurs on the femora of an adult male from The femoral necks are not well defined and the bones are markedly shortened. The adult male of shows fusion of the neural arches of the second and third cervical vertebrae. This likely represents a congenital condition. The adult female of displays two fused lumbar vertebrae (Fig. 12) and fusion of the two pubic bones in the midline (Figs 13 and 14). A large perimortem lesion is present on the frontal of the adult female of This circular lesion with irregular margins measures approximately 7 mm in diameter. The lesion includes a slight endocranial perforation. Slight bone reaction is evident on the external surface, precluding a postmortem origin of the lesion. The adult male of shows extreme arthritic bone involvement on the femoral head and neck with slight eburnation (cartilage destruction) on the left femoral head. No other severe arthritic changes were noted on this individual. Lines of arrested growth Lines of arrested growth or "Harris Lines" reflect areas of abnormal bone formation produced by a temporary reduction in the rate of longitudinal diaphyseal bone growth. These lines provide some information about morbidity during the lifetime of the individual. Unfortunately, the lines cannot be correlated directly with disease experience because (1) they do not always appear following disease or nutritional problems, (2) they sometimes appear without an obvious cause, and (3) unlike enamel hypoplasias, they can be removed through the process of bone remodeling. In this study, radiological examination for lines of arrested growth was confined to the distal tibia. One well preserved distal tibia was examined for each individual for whom sex could be reliably estimated. Contact radiographs were prepared by placing the distal tibia in contact with the radiographic plate. All bones were oriented in an anteriorposterior position. Observations on lines were made from the developed radiographic film. A line was scored as present if it presented distinct radiological characteristics and extended more than 50% across the diameter of the diaphysis. The distance was also measured between each recognizable line and the distal metaphyseal surface. In immature individuals with separate distal epiphyses, this measurement was simply the distance from the line to the extreme distal end of the bone. In adults, the distal measuring point was defined as the radiodense linear area near the distal end that appeared to represent the site of epiphyseal union in the central portion of the diaphysis. In immature tibiae, five lines were found from one individual within a total sample of 12. The frequency of lines per individual ranged was only.42. The percentage of af-

21 fected individuals was 8.3 (one of 12 individuals). The age of the individual at the time of formation of each line was calculated by estimating the length of the bone at the time of line formation. This estimation was accomplished by considering the amount of growth that had occurred after line formation (distance between line and extreme distal end) and the total length of the bone (235 mm). The age of the individual at the formation of the line was then calculated by comparing the estimated length of the bone at the time of formation with published growth data for the tibia. The five lines were located at the following distances from the distal end of the tibia: 5 mm, 10 mm, 11 mm, 16 mm, and 21 mm. According to ANDERSON et al. (1963) 43% of longitudinal growth occurs at the distal end and 57% at the proximal end. This suggests that distances from the proximal end of the current bone to the points that represented the extreme proximal end at the time of line formation was 6.6 mm, 13.3 mm, 14.6 mm, 21.3 mm, and 27.9 mm. Thus, the total diaphyseal lengths of the bone at the times of line formation (current length of 235 mm minus the proximal and distal values) were approximately 223 mm, 212 mm, 209 mm, 198 mm, and 186 mm. The age of formation of the lines can then be estimated by comparing the long bone length values with available growth data on tibia diaphysial length. These estimated ages can vary considerably depending upon the growth data utilized since long bone growth and resulting adult statures vary among world populations. For comparative purposes, the ages of line formation were estimated using three published studies; a longitudinal radiographic study of several hundred normal middle class North American children of northwestern European descent (GlNDHART 1973), a cross-sectional study of archeologically recovered protohistoric Ankara children skeletons from South Dakota in the United States (MERCHANT & UBELAKER 1977), and European data on long bone growth published by FEREMBACH et al. (1979). Variability in these data reveals the importance of utilizing standards appropriate to the material examined. The modern American data suggest more rapid growth and taller statures in those samples than in the other two studies. Thus ages of line formation calculated from estimated diaphyseal long bone length at the time of line formation are younger when estimated using the modern American data. The modern American data would suggest ages of line formation of 3.6, 4.2, 4.8, 5.0, and 5.5 years using male data and 3.7, 4.2, 4.8, 4.9 and 5.7 years using female data (sex of the specimen is unknown). In contrast, ages of line formation estimated using the Ankara data (MERCHANT & UBELAKER 1977) would be about 5.8, 6.6, 6.4, 6.5, and 7.1 years. The European data would suggest ages of line formation of 6.8, 7.7, 8.6, 8.8 and 9.1 years. For adults, the distal tibiae of 44 males and 49 females were examined for lines of anested growth. Of these, 4 male tibiae (9.1 %) and 7 female tibiae (14.3%) displayed at least one line. A total of 12 lines were found in males and 26 in females. The mean number of lines per bone was 3.0 for males and 3.7 for females. Individual age at the time of formation of the line was calculated for each individual showing lines in a manner similar to that described above for immature individuals. The length of the bone at the time of formation was estimated in consideration of the present length of the bone and the distance between the line and the site of distal epiphyseal union. Age at the time of line formation was then estimated by comparing the estimated length of the bone at the time of line formation with published European data on the

22 growth of the tibia (STLOUKAL & HANAKOVA 1978). These European data were chosen to estimate the age of formation since they are based upon a sixth to ninth century Slavic sample. The mean statures estimated for this Slavic sample were 171cm for males and 161 cm for females. Ages were estimated to the nearest year. The above described process revealed that the lines of arrested growth found in the adult tibia sample formed between the ages of 11 and greater than 14 years, with a mean age of 14.1 years. The age of line formation in males ranged from 11 to above 14 years with a mean of 14.0 years. In females, the values ranged from 12 to above 14 years with a mean age of Mid-diaphyseal circumference The circumference of the mid-diaphysis of the tibiae and femora of adults of estimated sex was measured in mm using a flexible tape. Left bones were measured when available. In the absence of a measureable left bone, the right bone was substituted. The measurement was recorded to provide some comparative data on relative bone robusticity. These data may provide some perspective on the relative activity of the population, to the extent that complex growth factors involving genetics, diet, disease, and activity can be sorted out. For adult males, data on mid-diaphysis circumference were collected on 123 femora and 109 tibiae. The femoral values ranged from 71 to 106 with a mean value of (s.d. 6.50). Tibia values ranged from 70 to 100 with a mean of and a s.d. of For adult females, data were collected on 130 femora and 120 tibiae. The femoral values ranged from 60 to 92 with a mean of and a s.d. of Tibia values ranged from 60 to 92 with a mean of and a s.d. of Estimated living stature Living stature was estimated for as many adults as possible from individual long bone lengths. For each individual, the maximum length of the left femur was recorded for stature calculation if it was sufficiently well preserved. If this bone was not available, then whenever possible, the right femur or a tibia was substituted. Living stature was calculated from these measurements using the formulae of TROTTER (1970) for white males and females. For males, living stature was estimated for 51 adults. These estimates ranged from 157 cm to 183 cm with a mean of and s.d. of Female stature was estimated for 60 individuals with a range of 145 to 169 cm, a mean of cm and a s.d. of DISCUSSION The large sample excavated from this site of 593 individuals offers an unusual opportunity to assemble frequency data on health conditions reflected on the skeleton during the Bronze Age. The relatively even numbers of males (169) and females (176) in the samples indicate that mortuary customs did not favour representation of one sex over the other.

23 Demographic reconstruction reveals a relatively moderate infant mortality rate. Life expectancy at birth is estimated at about 24 years, with life expectancy at age 15 of another 17 years. The adult mortality peak was between 25 and 30 years. For comparative purposes, ACSÁDI & NEMESKÉRI (1970) reported life expectancy at birth for the Copper Age population of Alsónémedi at a relatively high 29 years. The value at age 15 was 25.3 years. They reported in a life table constructed from skeletal remains from the 9th to 11th century Hungarian site of Keszthely-Dobogó, life expectancy at birth of 35.3 years and at age 15 of 32.4 years. ACSÁDI & NEMESKÉRI suggest a model life table for 10th to 11th century Hungary with a life expectancy at birth of 28.7 years and at age 15 of 30.4 years. FÓTHI & FÓTHI (1996) reported a years life expectancy at birth and a years life expectancy at 15 in their study on the 10th century series of Tiszafüred-Nagykenderföldek. These values are not only much higher than those revealed at Tiszafüred but are also much higher than those from the Americas. The demographic data may reflect differences in sample representation as well as differences in methods of age estimation. However, if they are comparable, they suggest the Tiszafüred sample suffered increased mortality over later populations. The frequency of enamel hypoplasia in the Tiszafüred sample was a relatively low 0.5% of all permanent teeth. MOLNÁR & MOLNAR (1985) included dental hypoplasia in their survey of dental problems of seven Hungarian samples ranging in antiquity from the late Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age. Their samples included 889 teeth from the Tiszafüred site. Their frequencies of dental hypoplasia ranged from 0 in two Late Neolithic sites to 5.2 in their most recent sample from the Late Bronze Age. Their figure from Tiszafüred was 2.2%, a figure markedly higher than our value of 0.5%. This difference in scoring a trait from samples from the same site may reflect their more restricted sample size or more likely individual differences in defining the trait. In fact, all data assembled by different investigators are difficult to compare because of variance in definitions of the trait. Their negative value is somewhat surprising for the two earliest samples since in a separate paper (MOLNAR & MOLNAR 1985) they found an even higher frequency (26.3%) among the even earlier Krapina Neanderthals. We interpret our relatively low figure for the Tiszafüred sample to indicate relatively low levels of physiological stress during infancy and childhood. We also note the lack of hypoplasia among the deciduous teeth. MARCSIK & Kocsis (1992) found low frequencies of hypoplastic defects in their survey of various Hungarian samples but they discuss the varied conditions that likely produced them. The frequency of dental caries (3.15% of 3,903 teeth) also is relatively low. The MOLNAR & MOLNAR (1985) survey found frequencies ranging from 3.8% in an early Bronze Age sample to 14.7% during the Late Bronze Age. Their figure from Tiszafüred was a slightly lower 2.2%. Like us, they found the majority of the carious lesions present to represent those of the root or junction of the crown and root. FRAYER (1984) found a caries frequency of 12.1% in the 9-11th century Zalavár- Kápolna and 6.4% in the 11th century series Zalavár-Vár. PAP (1986) reported a caries frequency of 9.1% in the 10 12th century Szabolcs cemetery and 7.9% in a 10th century

24 Tiszafüred sample. Her survey of other Hungarian archeological samples ranged from 5.6% to 12.1%. FÓTHI & PAP (1989) reported caries data from a series ranging temporally from the early Avar Period in the 6th-7th century to the 10-12th century. They found caries frequencies ranging from 1.95% to 13.9% with the lowest figures originating from the earliest samples. Our overall value of 3.15% falls within the lower end of this range and indicates that foods consumed were not excessively cariogenic. The frequency of alveolar abscess was a very low 0.42% at Tiszafüred. This undoubtedly reflects the low frequencies of dental caries and hypoplasia since abscess, like dental loss, is the product of other problems that allow infection within the tooth. MOL NAR & MOLNAR (1985) reported a slightly higher value of 2.5 for their Tiszafüred sample within their seven sample range from 0.5 to 3.2. Our figure would be lower than any of their reported values, but their own figure for Tiszafüred is near the upper end of their range. Again, this difference likely reflects our larger sample size and differences in definitions of the trait. FRAYER (1984) reported a 16.6% abscess for the 9-11th century Zalavár-Kápolna and a much lower, 4.6% for the 11th century Zalavár-Vár. PAP (1986) found abscess frequencies of 0.9 and 1.6% for two of the Hungarian samples in her study. In their study, FÓTHI & PAP (1989) found abscess frequencies to range from 0.9% to 16.60%. Thus the Tiszafüred value of 0.42% would be low within their range. Frequencies of cribra orbitalia in the Tiszafüred sample were about 6% of all adult orbits and about 28% of immature orbits. Comparative data are difficult to find from Hungarian samples. FÓTHI (1988) found a 31.5% cribra orbitale for the adults and very high, 85.2% for the immatures in the Fészerlak sample of Avar Period. JÓZSA & PAP (1989) reported the presence of cribra orbitalia in nearly all orbits of juveniles from the Vörs-Papkert site in Transdanubia south of Lake Balaton. This series ranges from the Avar Period to the 1 Ith century. Adult frequencies ranged from 0 to about 40%. Thus cribra orbitalia values from our Tiszafüred Bronze Age sample fall within the lower end of their reported range. Evidence of porotic hyperostosis of the cranial vault (excluding the orbits) was found within the Tiszafüred sample in between 3.5% and 4.3% of immature parietals and was completely lacking in adults. Presumably, the expression in juveniles was eventually lost due to remodeling during the growth process. Comparative data from Hungarian samples are not available. Expressions of osteoarthritis in the Tiszafüred sample was primarily consistent with the relatively youthful adult sample. Of the adult vertebrae, 55% showed no arthritic change (rounded centrum margins), 31 were stage 1 (sharpening of margins), 11% showed evidence of extensions and only 3% involved extreme extensions. These data are consistent with the demographic projections of a life expectancy at age 15 of only 17 years. Values for trauma were also surprisingly low. The ratio of the number of fractures to the number of adults was.0385 with the corresponding subadult value only The individual trauma rate was highest for the clavicle with only 0.15% showing trauma. Dif-

25 ferent types of trauma were present, including sharp force trauma, general blunt force trauma, patterned blunt force trauma, and Colles' fractures resulting from falls. The frequency of periosteal lesions, interpreted as likely evidence for infection was relatively low. The ratio of bones with lesions to the total number of adults was The right tibia showed the highest individual bone frequency of infection with only 1.56% of bones affected. Comparative data on lines of increased density are few and complicated by variance in the definitions of the lines. JÓZSA & PAP (1989) presented comparative data from archeologically recovered samples from south of Lake Balaton. They found distal tibia frequencies ranging from 42% among males to 67% among females. These figures are much higher than found in this study, but also suggest that the lines are more frequent in females than in males. The samples studied by JÓZSA & PAP (1989) are much more recent than those reported here, dating from between the 8th and 11th centuries. Living stature of the population represented by the Tiszafüred sample was estimated to be about 168 cm for males and about 157 cm tor females. Comparative data from ancient Hungary are difficult to interpret due to the wide variation in techniques employed. As suggested by MARCSIK (1987) in her study of 200 skeletons from the Szeged area dating from the 8th, 10th, and 14th centuries, various indicators of population stress do not correlate well when compared on individual skeletons. However, in this study they tentatively suggest a population that suffered early mortality, but generally avoided many of the problems during life that plagued other peoples. The sample size of the Tiszafüred series is sufficiently large to produce meaningful data, however comparative data are generally lacking. Final perspective on the relative quality of their lives must await additional study of other large samples from different time periods. * * : : A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s - The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance in the laboratory of BÉLA ZILAHY and SZABOLCS MAKRA. ERICA JONES of the Smithsonian Institution assisted with the data compilation. REFERENCES ACSÁDI, GY. & NEMESKÉRI, J. (1970): Human life span and mortality. - Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 346 pp. ANDERSON, M., GREEN, W. & MESSER, M. (1963): Growth of the femur and the tibia. - J. Bone Joint Surg. 45: ARMELAGOS, G. J., GOODMAN, A. H. & JACOBS, K. H. (1991): The origins of agriculture: Population growth during a period of declining health. - Population and Environment 13: BONA, I. (1987): A nemzetségi és törzsi társadalom törtenete Magyarországon, fhistory of clan and tribal society in Hungary]. - In: BARTIIA. A. (ed.): Magyarország története. Előzmények és magyar történet 1241-ig. [History of Hungary. Prehistory and Hungarian history until 1242], pp

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