Psychology.

Transcription

1 1 Psychlgy. In Sectin 1 f this curse yu will cver these tpics: The Science Of Psychlgy Hw Psychlgists D Research. Genes, Evlutin, And The Envirnment The Brain: Surce Of Mind And Self Tpic : The Science Of Psychlgy Tpic Objective: At the end f this tpic students will be able t: Understand the psychlgy is a science Understand the eight critical thinking guidelines that help in understanding psychlgical issues Understand the basic principles f structuralism Understand the basic principles f functinalism Understand the basic principles f psychanalysis Understand the bilgical perspective explain thughts, feelings, and behavir Understand the learning perspective apprach explain understanding behavir Understand the cgnitive perspective in psychlgy emphasize Understand the sci cultural perspective in psychlgy fcus n Understand the psychdynamic perspective explain thughts and behavir Understand the rle did humanism and feminism play in shaping the develpment f mdern psychlgy Understand the main differences between basic and applied psychlgy Understand the psychtherapists, psychanalysts, and psychiatrists differ frm ne anther in their training, backgrund, and apprach t treatment Definitin/Overview: Psychlgy: Psychlgy (frm Greek ψῡχή, psȳkhē, "breath, life, sul"; and -λογία, -lgia) is an academic and applied discipline invlving the scientific study f mental prcesses and behavir. Psychlgists study such phenmena as perceptin, cgnitin, emtin, persnality, behavir, and interpersnal relatinships. Psychlgy als refers t the applicatin f such knwledge t varius spheres f human activity, including issues related

2 2 t everyday life (e.g. family, educatin, and emplyment) and the treatment f mental health prblems. Psychlgists attempt t understand the rle f these functins in individual and scial behavir, while als explring the underlying physilgical and neurlgical prcesses. Psychlgy includes many sub-fields f study and applicatin cncerned with such areas as human develpment, sprts, health, industry, media, and law. Key Pints: 1. psychlgy, pseudscience, and ppular pinin Psychlgy, pseudscience, and ppular pinin Psychlgy is based n rigrus research Its claims are testable Ppular pinin is smetimes wrng 2. thinking critically and creatively in psychlgy Critical thinking is the ability and willingness t assess claims and make judgments n the basis f well-supprted research Eight guidelines fr critical thinking Ask questins; be willing t wnder Define yur terms A hypthesis is a statement that tries t describe r explain a given behavir Operatinal definitins specify hw the phenmena are t be measured Examine the evidence Analyze assumptins and biases: falsifiability is a gd practice! Avid emtinal reasning Dnt versimplify Cnsider ther interpretatins Tlerate uncertainty

3 3 3. Psychlgys past: frm the armchair t the labratry All psychlgists want t describe, predict, understand, and mdify behavir Early psychlgists Primarily used anecdtes r descriptins f individual cases as evidence, instead f empirical evidence Phrenlgy Early 1800s and Jseph Gall Discredited thery that different brain areas accunt fr character and persnality traits, and can be read frm bumps n the skull The birth f mdern psychlgy Germany and Wilhelm Wundt Cnsidered the father f psychlgy Established first experimental psychlgy lab in 1879 rained intrspectintechnique by which participants were trained t Three early psychlgies Structuralism describe their sensatins, mental images, and emtins Titchener (student f Wundt) ppularized Wundts ideas in the United States Intrspectin was methd f chice t determine what happens Functinalism William James interested in hw and why behavir ccurs; causes and cnsequences f behavir

4 4 Influenced by Darwin and asked hw certain attributes enhance survival and adapt t the envirnment Used a variety f methds and studied a brader range f subjects Psychanalysis Sigmund Freud Believed that patients symptms had mental, nt bdily, causes Uncnscius part f mind has strng influence n behavir 4. psychlgys present: behavir, bdy, mind, and culture The majr psychlgical perspectives The bilgical perspective The learning perspective Examines hw bdily events affect behavir, feelings, and thughts Related t evlutinary psychlgy, which examines hw evlutinary past may explain sme present behavirs and psychlgical traits Behavirism Examines hw the envirnment and experience affect a persns actins Des nt use the mind t explain behavir: they study nly what they can bserve and measure directly Scial-cgnitive learning theries Cmbines behavirism with research n mental prcesses like thughts, values, expectatins, and intentins

5 5 Expands behavirism beynd the study f behavir t include learning by bservatin, insight, imitatin The cgnitive perspective Emphasizes mental prcesses in perceptin, memry, language, prblem slving, and ther areas f behavir One f the strngest frces in psychlgy tday The sci-cultural perspective Emphasizes scial and cultural influences n behavir Scial psychlgists fcus n scial rules and rles, and n the influence f grups, friends, lvers, and thers Cultural psychlgists examine hw cultural rules and values affect peples develpment, behavir, and feelings The psychdynamic perspective Deals with uncnscius dynamics within the individual, such as inner frces, cnflicts, r instinctual energy Based n Freuds thery f psychanalysis, but ther theries als exist Fcuses n uncnscius rigins f self-defeating behavir Language, methds, standards f evidence differ frm ther appraches Tw influential mvements in psychlgy Humanistic psychlgy Rejects psychanalytic perspective as t pessimistic and behavirism as t mechanistic

6 6 Rejects determinism by the uncnscius (psychanalysis) r by the envirnment(behavirism); believes in free will Gal f humanism is t help peple express themselves and reach their full ptential Psitive psychlgymdern humanism Feminist psychlgy Identifies biases in research and psychtherapy 5. what psychlgists d Psychlgical research Feminist psychlgists may identify with any f the majr perspectives Analyzes gender identity, rles, relatins, and behavir f the sexes Mtivates the study f new tpics such as mtherhd, menstruatin, and menpause Reminds us that research and psychtherapy are scial prcesses, affected by all the attitudes and values that peple bring t any endeavr Basic researchers seek knwledge fr its wn sake Applied researchers fcus n the practical uses f their findings Psychlgical practice Practitiners wrk t understand and imprve physical and mental health They wrk in hspitals, schls, and cunseling centers Types f practitiners Cunseling psychlgists help peple deal with prblems f everyday life

7 7 Schl psychlgists wrk t enhance students perfrmance Clinical psychlgists diagnse, treat, and study mental and emtinal prblems Differences between therapists The term psychtherapist is unregulated; anyne can claim t be ne A psychanalyst is a persn wh practices psychanalysis. This requires an advanced degree and specialized training A psychiatrist is a medical dctr with training in psychiatry; psychiatrists ften fcus n bilgical causes and treat them with medicatin Scial wrkers and cunselrs usually have a Masters degree in scial wrk r psychlgy Psychlgy in the cmmunity--psychlgists cntribute t the welfare f their cmmunities by helping ut within their areas f expertise Tpic : Hw Psychlgists D Research Tpic Objective: At the end f this tpic students will be able t: Understand the five characteristics f an ideal scientist Understand the defining elements f descriptive research Can yu give an example f a case study, bservatinal research, a psychlgical test, and a survey Understand the psitive and negative crrelatins lk like, and what d they signify Understand the a crrelatin nt establish a causal relatinship between tw variables Understand the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable Understand the difference between an experimental grup and a cntrl grup Understand the randm assignment necessary when cnducting an experiment

8 8 Understand the tw advantages and tw disadvantages f cnducting an experiment, cmpared t ther research techniques Understand the a psychlgical scientist use descriptive statistics versus inferential statistics Understand the majr ethical guidelines researchers must fllw when cnducting research with human participants Understand the majr ethical guidelines researchers must fllw when cnducting research with animals Definitin/Overview: Psychlgist:A psychlgist is a practitiner f psychlgy, the systematic investigatin f the mind, including behavir, cgnitin, and affect. The tw majr categries f psychlgists are thse wh cnduct scientific research and thse wh wrk in an applied psychlgy area. Applied psychlgists are further subdivided int a number f mental health and ther prfessins, the mst well-recgnized being clinical and cunseling psychlgists. Dctral level trained psychlgists are als the experts in the prvisin/administratin and interpretatin f psychlgical tests and assessment. Key Pints: 1. What Makes Psychlgical Research Scientific Characteristics f the ideal psychlgist as scientist Precisin Begin with a thery (an rganized set f assumptins and principles used t explain a particular phenmenn) Develp a hypthesis (a specific statement that attempts t describe r explain a particular phenmenn) Create peratinal definitins f a phenmenn s that ne can bjectively measure that phenmenn Skepticism

9 9 D nt accept explanatins f phenmena based n blind faith r authrity Reliance n empirical evidence Shw me the data Willingness t make risky predictins Principle f falsifiability Openness Thery must make predictins that are specific enugh that they can be refutedthis allws fr grwth f the thery Thery must predict bth what will happen and what will nt happen Cnfirmatin bias Thery must make predictins that are specific enugh that they can be refutedthis allws fr grwth f the thery Scientists try t avid cnfirmatin bias via the scientific methd Science relies n penness and full disclsure f methdlgical, statistical, and ethical prcedures Need t replicate nvel findings (e.g., need t check the Mzart effect t see if it is the phenmenn it is purprted t be) Need t disseminate results via a peer review prcess 2. Descriptive Studies: Establishing The Facts Althugh psychlgists wuld like t measure representative samples, btaining them can ften be a tall rder

10 10 Much research is based n cnvenience samples Case studies Detailed descriptins f individuals A drawback is that the persn studied may nt be representative f the ppulatin, therefre strng cnclusins cant be drawn using nly this methd Observatinal studies invlve nnbtrusive, systematic measurement f behavir Naturalistic bservatin takes place in the rganisms nrmal envirnment A labratry bservatin allws the researcher t cntrl the envirnment A drawback is that we cant infer cause and effect because we dnt knw why the peple r animals are acting the way they are based nly n bservatin Tests are prcedures fr measuring traits, states, interests, abilities, and values Objective tests measure characteristics f which the individual is aware Prjective tests tap uncnscius feelings r mtives Qualities f a gd test Standardized Nrmed Reliable Valid Surveys are questinnaires and interviews that ask peple abut themselves directly A representative sample is essential--watch ut fr vlunteer bias Peple smetimes lie, especially if the infrmatin is sensitive and annymity is nt guaranteed Think abut hw the questins are phrased

11 11 3. Crrelatinal Studies: Lking Fr Relatinships A psitive crrelatin means that high values f ne variable tend t g with high values f the ther A negative crrelatin means that high values f ne variable tend t g with lw values f the ther The cefficient f crrelatin varies between (perfect psitive) and (perfect negative) Crrelatin des nt mean causatin 4. The Experiment: Hunting Fr Causes All studies must meet ethical guidelines Infrmed cnsent, humane treatment, etc., are all gd ideas Experimental variables Independent variables are manipulated by the researcher Dependent variables are a measure f the reactin f the participants t the independent variable Everything but the independent variable is held cnstant (t as great an extent as pssible) Experimental and cntrl cnditins In the cntrl cnditin, participants are nt expsed t the treatment, whereas they are when in the experimental cnditin In the cntrl cnditin, participants may receive a placeb--a fake treatment (e.g., n active ingredients) Cntrl grups are imprtant fr bth experimental and nnexperimental studies Experimenter effects Participants respnses may be influenced by the experimenters subtle cues One slutin is t use duble-blind studies Advantages and limitatins f experiments

12 12 Like any methd, experimentatin ffers a range f advantages and limitatins Field versus lab, cntrl versus realism, etc. 5. Evaluating The Findings Why psychlgists use statistics Descriptive statistics summarize the data The arithmetic mean is the sum f scres divided by the number f scres The standard deviatin tells hw clustered r spread ut the scres are Inferential statistics allw the researcher t draw inferences abut the results. If the likelihd f getting the result by chance is very lw, the result is statistically significant Frm the labratry t the real wrld Chsing the best explanatin--the hypthesis may need t be tested in different ways (e.g., crss-sectinally and lngitudinally) Judging the results imprtance Researchers may disagree n its relevance fr thery r practice Meta-analysis is a technique that cmbines data frm many studies 6. Keeping the EnterpriseEthical The ethics f studying human beings ethics f studying animals Why study animals T cnduct basic research n a particular species

13 13 T discver practical applicatins T study issues that cannt be studied experimentally using humans because f practical r ethical reasns T clarify theretical questins T imprve human welfare Tpic : Genes, Evlutin, And The Envirnment Tpic Objective: At the end f this tpic students will be able t: Understand the evlutinary psychlgy and behaviral genetics related t each ther Understand the genes, DNA, chrmsmes, and amin acids related t ne anther Understand the genetic markers Understand the principle f natural selectin Understand the five innate human characteristics Understand the difference between the deep structure and the surface structure f a language Understand the five cnverging lines f research evidence in supprt f the language acquisitin device Understand the scibilgy and evlutinary psychlgy related Understand the sci bilgical explanatin fr the different sexual strategies f wmen and men Understand the genetic leash Understand the heritability estimate and hw is it cmputed Understand the three imprtant cnsideratins t keep in mind when interpreting heritability estimates Understand the evidence is there that intelligence has a strng genetic cmpnent, and what evidence is there that intelligence has a strng envirnmental cmpnent Definitin/Overview: Genes, Evlutin, and the Envirnment: The gene-centered view f evlutin, gene selectin thery r selfish gene thery hlds that natural selectin acts thrugh differential

14 14 survival f cmpeting genes, increasing the frequency f thse alleles whse phentypic effects successfully prmte their wn prpagatin. Accrding t this thery, adaptatins are the phentypic effects thrugh which genes achieve their prpagatin. The predminant mdern scientific explanatin fr the adaptatin f living beings was initially tailred by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, wh prpsed the thery f evlutin by natural selectin as ppsed t the Lamarckian idea f evlutin via acquired changes. The thery f evlutin by natural selectin was initially based n a vague cncept f heredity. Darwin endrsed the blending inheritance hypthesis due t the absence, at that time, f a rigrus thery f heredity. Subsequently, significant discveries abut bth the mechanisms f inheritance and thse f develpment have revlutinised this area f bilgy. Key Pints: 1. Unlcking the Secrets f Genes Genes Chrmsmes DNA (dexyribnucleic acid) Genme Linkage studies 2. The Genetics f Similarity Evlutin and natural selectin Traits and preferences These can be seen as successful adaptatins t the envirnment Mental mdules The mind develped and evlved as a system f specialized units r mdules

15 15 Innate human characteristics Infant reflexes Interest in nvelty Desire t explre and manipulate bjects Impulse t play and fl arund Basic cgnitive skills 3. Our Human Heritage: Language The nature f languagedefinitin f language The innate capacity fr language Chmskys psitinlanguage acquisitin deviceuniversal grammar Surface structure versus deep structure Rle f syntax Evidence in supprt f Chmskys psitin Children in different cultures g thrugh similar stages f linguistic develpment Children cmbine wrds in ways that adults never wulde.g., verregularizatins Adults d nt cnsistently crrect their childrens syntax, yet children learn t speak r sign crrectly anyway Children nt expsed t adult language may invent a language f their wne.g., deaf children in Nicaragua Infants as yung as 7 mnths can derive simple linguistic rules frm a string f sundsresearch n infant preferences fr nvel patterns Evidence fr genetic cntributins t language acquisitinstudies f British families with a genetic disrder that prevents nrmal language acquisitin Learning and language

16 16 Neural netwrk mdels Adult recasting f childrens sentences Rle f bilgically determined critical perid fr language acquisitin 4. Our Human Heritage: Curtship And Mating Evlutin and sexual strategies Definitin f scibilgy Scibilgical basis f male-female differences in mating and survival strategies Evlutinary psychlgists rely less n cmparisns with ther species, fcus n cmmnalities in human mating practices Bth scibilgists and evlutinary psychlgists emphasize evlutinary rigins f human sex differences that appear t be universal Culture and the genetic leash Critics say that evlutinary explanatins f sex differences in curtship and mating are based n simplistic steretypes Human sexual behavir is highly varied and changeable Similarity and prximity are amng the strngest predictrs f mate selectin Scial Darwinism 5. The Genetics f Difference The meaning f heritability Definitin f heritability Heritability f traits is expressed as a prprtin An estimate f heritability applies nly t a particular grup living in a particular envirnment Heritability estimates d nt apply t individuals, nly t variatins within a grup Even highly heritable traits can be mdified by the envirnment Cmputing heritability Heritability f traits must be inferred by studying peple with knwn genetic similarity

17 17 Adptin studies Twin studiesidentical versus fraternal twins 6. Our Human Diversity: The Case f Intelligence Genes and individual differences IQ = intelligence qutient IQ determined by dividing mental age by chrnlgical age and multiplying by 100. Distributin f IQ scres in the ppulatin apprximates a bell-shaped curve Average IQ scre is 100; tw-thirds f IQ scres fall between 85 and 115 The questin f grup differences Racial differences in IQ scres The Bell Curve Within-grup versus between-grup differences The envirnment and intelligence Sme envirnmental influences are assciated with reduced mental ability Pr prenatal care Malnutritin Expsure t txins Stressful family circumstances Healthy, stimulating envirnments are assciated with increased mental ability Abecedarian prject IQ scres in develping cuntries are increasing

18 18 7. Beynd Nature And Nurture An either/r apprach t genes and the envirnment is nt as prductive as a hw much f each apprach Tpic : The Brain: Surce Of Mind And Self Tpic Objective: At the end f this tpic students will be able t: Understand the tw main divisins f the human nervus system Understand the tw parts f the central nervus system Understand the divisins f the peripheral nervus system Understand the divisins f the autnmic nervus system Understand the three cmpnents f a neurn Understand the neurns cmmunicate with ne anther Understand the neurtransmitters and what d they d Understand the endrphins and what d they d Understand the hrmnes and what d they d Understand the eight techniques researchers use fr understanding the wrkings f the brain Understand the the majr functins f the brain stem, the cerebellum, and the thalamus Understand the the majr functins f the hypthalamus, the amygdala, and the hippcampus Understand the the fur lbes f the cerebral crtex, and Understand the the majr functins f each Understand the studies f split-brain patients help researchers understand the functins f the left and right cerebral hemispheres Understand the sme f the arguments in favr f and against the cnclusin that wmens and mens brains differ anatmically and functinally Definitin/Overview: Brain: The brain is the center f the nervus system in animals. All vertebrates, and the majrity f invertebrates, have a brain. Sme "primitive" animals such as jellyfishes and starfishes have a decentralized nervus system withut a brain, while spnges lack any

19 19 nervus system at all. In vertebrates, the brain is lcated in the head, prtected by the skull and clse t the primary sensry apparatus f visin, hearing, balance, taste, and smell. Key Pints: 1. The nervus system: a basic blueprint The central nervus system Functins--receives, prcesses, interprets, and stres incming infrmatin; sends ut messages t muscles, glands, internal rgans Parts--brain and spinal crd (an extensin f the brain) The peripheral nervus system--nervus system utside brain and spinal crd Functins Sensry nerves--bring input frm skin, muscles, and rgans Mtr nerves--carry utput t muscles, glands, and rgans Divisins Smatic nervus system Nerves cnnected t sensry receptrs Nerves cnnected t skeletal muscles--vluntary actin Autnmic nervus system--wrks autmatically Functins--regulates bld vessels, glands, rgans Bifeedback--helps peple cntrl autnmic respnses Divisins Healthy, stimulating envirnments are assciated with increased mental ability

20 20 Abecedarian prject IQ scres in develping cuntries are increasing 2. Cmmunicatin in The Nervus System Cmpnents f the nervus system Glial cells--hld neurns in place; nurish, insulate neurns Neurns--cells that cmmunicate t, frm, r within the CNS The structure f the neurn Dendrites--receive messages frm ther neurns, transmit t cell bdy Cell bdy--keeps the neurn alive, determines whether t fire Axn--transmits messages away frm cell bdy t ther neurns Ends in branches r axn terminals Many axns insulated by fatty material r myelin sheath Bundles f axns in the peripheral nervus system frm nerves Precursr cells can give rise t new neurns Physical and mental activity prmte survival f these new cells Stress and nictine have detrimental effects Neurns in the news: Advances in neurscience attract ur interest almst daily Hw neurns cmmunicate Synapse = axn terminal + synaptic cleft (small space between ne axn and next dendrite) + cvering membrane f receiving dendrite r cell bdy Many thusands f neurns may cmmunicate at a synapse

21 21 Synaptic cnnectins cntinue t change thrughut life Hw neurns cmmunicate Wave f electric vltage, called actin ptential, mves dwn axn t end f axn terminal, called synaptic end bulb Actin ptentials travel mre rapidly in myelinated axns than in unmyelinated axns Synaptic end bulb releases chemical neurtransmitters (transmitters) which have been stred in synaptic vesicles (sacs in the end bulb) Transmitters crss the synaptic cleft and briefly lck nt receptr sites n the receiving dendrites They can increase r decrease the likelihd that the receiving neurn will generate an actin ptential Receiving neurn averages the excitatry and inhibitry incming messages t determine if it reaches firing threshld Neurns either fire r d nt fire (all r nne); the strength f firing des nt vary Chemical messengers in the nervus system Neurtransmitters: Versatile curiers Many have been identified, mre are being fund Neurtransmitters exist thrughut the bdy Better understd neurtransmitters and sme f their effects Sertnin--sleep, md, eating Dpamine--mvement, learning, memry, emtin [pleasure]

22 22 Acetylchline--muscle actin, memry, emtin Nrepinephrine--heart rate, learning, memry GABA--majr inhibitry neurtransmitter in the brain Levels that are t high r t lw may prduce prblems Lw levels f sertnin and nrepinephrine assciated with depressin Abnrmal GABA levels assciated with sleep and eating disrders and cnvulsive disrders Lss f cells that prduce acetylchline assciated with Alzheimers disease Each neurtransmitter plays many rles and functins verlap Cause and effect between neurtransmitters and behavir unclear Endrphins: The brains natural piates Endrphins are endgenus piid peptides Prduce effects similar t natural piates; reduce pain, prmte pleasure, as well as playing a rle in ther functins Mst act as neurmdulatrs--influence actins f neurtransmitters Wrk by binding t receptrs in brain Levels increase during stress r fear respnse Release f endrphins may als be linked t the pleasures f scial cntact Hrmnes: Lng-distance messengers

23 23 Substances prduced in ne part f the bdy but affect anther riginate primarily in endcrine glands that release hrmnes int the bldstream, which carries them t ther rgans and cells A chemical may act as either a neurtransmitter r a hrmne, depending where it is lcated Hrmnes f particular interest t psychlgists Melatnin--secreted by the pineal gland, regulates bilgical rhythms Oxytcin--secreted by the pituitary gland Adrenal hrmnes Sex hrmnes--three majr types; all three types ccur in bth sexes 3. Mapping The Brain Researchers study the brains f thse wh have experienced disease r injury Lesin methd--invlves damaging r remving sectin f brain in animals and then bserving the effects Electrical and magnetic detectin Electrencephalgram (EEG) invlves brain wave recrding; nt very specific Needle electrdes Thin wires inserted int the brain t recrd electrical activity and t stimulate brain Micrelectrdes--fine wires that can be inserted int single cells Transcranial magnetic stimulatin (TMS)

24 24 Mst recent technique; hlds a great deal f prmise Psitrn-Emissin Tmgraphy--PET scan Recrds bichemical changes in the brain as they ccur Utilizes a radiactive glucse-like substance Used t diagnse abnrmalities r t learn abut nrmal brain activity Magnetic Resnance Imaging (MRI)--uses magnetic fields and radi frequencies 4. A Tur Thrugh The Brain The brain stem--lcated at base f skull; ld part f brain Pns--invlved in sleeping, waking, and dreaming Medulla--regulates breathing and heart rate; autmatic functins Reticular activating system [RAS]--netwrk f neurns, extends upward and cnnects with higher brain areas; screens infrmatin, respnsible fr arusal and alertness Cerebellum--regulates balance and crdinatin f mvement; als invlved in remembering certain skills and acquired reflexes Thalamus--directs incming sensry messages (except lfactry) t higher center Hypthalamus--assciated with drives, such as hunger, thirst, emtin, sex and reprductin, bdy temperature, and the autnmic nervus system Pituitary gland--master gland gverned by hypthalamus Limbic system--lsely intercnnected structures invlved in emtins Amygdala--evaluates sensry infrmatin t determine its imprtance, invlved in mediating anxiety and depressin Hippcampus--gateway t memry that enables us t frm new memries; The case f H.M. illustrates its imprtance Cerebrum--respnsible fr higher frms f thinking--divided int tw halves r cerebral hemispheres

25 25 Cnnected by band f fibers called crpus callsum Right hemisphere in charge f left side f the bdy Left hemisphere in charge f right side f the bdy Lateralizatin--each hemisphere has smewhat different tasks and talents Cvered by layer f densely packed cells--cerebral crtex Grayish appearance = gray matter Made up f cell bdies f nerve cells White matter beneath crtex is frmed by myelinated axns Cntains three-furths f all cells in the brain Divided int fur regins Occipital lbes--cntain the visual crtex Parietal lbes--cntain smatsensry crtex, that receives infrmatin abut pressure, pain, tuch, and temperature frm all ver the bdy Tempral lbes--cntain auditry crtex Frntal lbes--cntain the mtr crtex; respnsible fr making plans, taking initiative, and thinking creatively Assciatin areas make up large parts f the cerebral crtex Prefrntal assciatin areas invlved in persnality Damage t the prefrntal crtex may affect this Case f Phineas Gage shws the utcmes f damage t the prefrntal crtex Invlved in scial judgment, ratinal decisin making, and the ability t set gals and make and carry thrugh plans

26 26 Invlved in determining the prper rder f behavirs and knwing when t stp 5. The Tw Hemispheres Of The Brain Split brains: A huse divided Crpus callsum, which cnnects the cerebral hemispheres in nrmal brains, is severed This surgery has been perfrmed in animal studies and fr sme human cnditins such as severe epilepsy Effects Split-brain patients are able t lead nrmal lives Effects n perceptin and memry are bservable under experimental cnditins The wrk f Sperry and clleagues is described A questin f dminance Left hemisphere handles language fr nearly all right-handed peple and a majrity f lefthanders Left side mre active than right during sme lgical, symblic, and sequential tasks, such as math Many researchers believe the left side is dminant because cgnitive skills, including ratinal and analytic abilities, riginate here Others pint t abilities f the right hemisphere: superir visual-spatial abilities, facial recgnitin, appreciatin f art and music; sme researchers claim it is hlistic and intuitive In real life, the tw hemispheres cperate autmatically in mst activities

27 27 6. Tw Stubbrn Issues In Brain Research Where is the self Cnscius sense f a unified self may be an illusin Many actins and chices we make are withut cnscius directin Brain perates utside f cnsicus awareness teachings Are there his and her brains Nt a unified thing--but a cllectin f thughts, cncepts, and feelings that shift frm mment t mment --cnsistent with Buddhist Effrts t identify male-female differences have reflected biases f the times Tw questins must be asked: Are male and female brains physically different Sex differences have been fund in animal brains Human sex differences mre elusive If there are brain differences, what d they mean fr the behavir f men and wmen in real life Many suppsed sex differences are steretypes Bilgical differences d nt necessarily mean behaviral differences Sex differences in the brain culd be the result rather than the cause f behaviral differences In Sectin 2 f this curse yu will cver these tpics: Bdy Rhythms And Mental States Sensatin And Perceptin

28 28 Learning And Cnditining Behavir In Scial And Cultural Cntext Tpic : Bdy Rhythms And Mental States Tpic Objective: At the end f this tpic students will be able t: Understand the a circadian rhythm and hw d the hypthalamus and hrmnes affect it Understand the evidence that mds can be affected by seasns, menstrual cycles, r teststerne Understand the stages f nn-rem sleep are there, and Understand the characterizes each stage Understand the is REM sleep different frm nn-rem sleep Understand the bdy cycle thrugh the stages f sleep during a nights rest Understand the sme f the cnsequences f a lack f sleep Understand the sme f the benefits f a gd nights sleep Understand the fur explanatins f the significance f dreaming Understand the differences between stimulants and depressants Understand the effects d piates and psychedelic drugs have n human cnsciusness Understand the drugs affect behavir at a physilgical level Understand the six main cnclusins that can be reached abut the nature f hypnsis Understand the dissciatin explanatin f hypnsis Understand the sci-cgnitive explanatin f hypnsis Definitin/Overview: Mental States: In psychlgy, mental state is an indicatin f a persn's mental health. As cmputer technlgy prliferated, s emerged the metaphr f mental functin as infrmatin prcessing. This, cmbined with a scientific apprach t studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led t the rise f cgnitivism as a ppular mdel f the mind. Cgnitive psychlgy differs frm ther psychlgical perspectives in tw key ways. First, it accepts the use f the scientific methd, and generally rejects intrspectin as a methd f investigatin, unlike symbl-driven appraches such as Freudian psychdynamics.

29 29 Secnd, it explicitly acknwledges the existence f internal mental states (such as belief, desire and mtivatin), whereas behavirism des nt. Key Pints: 1. Bilgical rhythms: the tides f experience Bilgical rhythms Regular fluctuatins in bilgical systems Endgenus rhythms--ccur in absence f external cues Circadian rhythms Endgenus rhythms that ccur every 24 hurs Exist in plants, animals, insects, and humans Can be studied by islating subjects frm envirnmental time cues The bdys clck Circadian rhythms cntrlled by a master bilgical clck lcated in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypthalamus SCN regulates neurtransmitters and hrmnes which prvide feedback t the SCN and affect its functining Melatnin, a hrmne regulated by the SCN, respnds t light-dark When the clck is ut f sync Internal desynchrnizatin--a state in which bilgical rhythms are nt in phase (synchrnized) with ne anther Cycles are affected by envirnmental and individual factrs (e.g., jet lag, night-shift wrkers) Bright lights may be used t help re-synchrnize bdy rhythms Mds and lng-term rhythms

30 30 Des the seasn affect mds Seasnal affective disrder (SAD) Depressin during winter mnths nly Deficiency f melatnin Bright light treatment and negative in expsure treatment effective in alleviating symptms f SAD Des the menstrual cycle affect mds First half f the cycle, estrgen increases; midcycle, varies release egg, then prgesterne increases; if cnceptin des nt ccur, estrgen and prgesterne levels fall Feelings f PMS versus true PMS Many wmen experience cramping, breast tenderness, water retentin, etc., and many reprt feeling mdy Hwever, true PMS includes predictable emtinal symptms f depressin and irritability True PMS affects less than 5 percent f the female ppulatin Retrspective reprts differ acrss the menstrual cycle, but daily reprts f md acrss the menstrual cycle d nt 2. The rhythms f sleep The realms f sleep Ultradian cycle ccurs, n average, every 90 minutes Nn-REM stages 1 - small, irregular brain waves; light sleep

31 high-peaking waves called sleep spindles 3 - delta waves begin; slw with high peaks 4 - mstly delta waves and deep sleep Nrmal sleep cycle: 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1, rapid eye mvement (REM) REM sleep Active brain waves Why we sleep Increased heart rate and bld pressure, limp muscles, twitching Dreaming Sleep is recuperative fr the bdy REM and nn-rem sleep cycle thrughut the night The purpse f REM sleep is unclear The mental cnsequences f sleeplessness Sleep deprivatin affects attentin, creativity, stress levels Sleepdisrders resulting in daytime sleepiness: Sleep apnea Narclepsy The mental benefits f sleep Memry cnslidatin and enhanced prblem slving are imprved

32 32 3. Explring the dream wrld Characteristics f dreams Fcus f attentin is inward Dreams as uncnscius wishes (Freud) Ryal rad t the uncnscius In dreams we express uncnscius wishes, desires (usually sexual r vilent in nature) Freudian dream interpretatin Manifest cntent--what we experience and remember Latent cntent--hidden, symblic; uncnscius wishes Many peple disagree with Freuds interpretatins Dreams as effrts t deal with prblems Prblem-fcused apprach in which dreams cnvey true, nt symblic, meaning Dreams reflect nging cnscius preccupatins f waking life Dreams ften cntain material related t current cncerns Sme believe dreams prvide an pprtunity fr reslving prblems Dreams as thinking Physilgical and infrmatin-prcessing apprach Unnecessary neural cnnectins are eliminated and imprtant nes are strengthened Assciated with cnslidatin Dreams are the remains f the srting, scanning, and sifting prcess Dreams as interpreted brain activity Activatin-synthesis thery Dreams are the result f neurns firing spntaneusly in the lwer brain (in the pns) that are sent t the crtex

33 33 Signals frm pns have n meaning, but the crtex tries t synthesize them Accrdingly, dreams shuld be bizarre and disjinted in terms f their meaning Critics say smetimes dreams d make meaningful sense Evaluating dream theries N single thery explains all facets f dreaming All appraches accunt fr sme f the evidence 4. The riddle f hypnsis Hypnsis Prcedure in which the practitiner suggests changes in the sensatins, perceptins, thughts, feelings, r behavir f the subject Suggestins invlve perfrmance f an actin Cmpliance with suggestins feels invluntary The nature f hypnsis Respnsiveness depends mre n persn being hypntized than hypntists skill Participants cannt be frced t d things against their will Hypntic inductins increase suggestibility but nly t a mdest degree; peple accept suggestins with and withut hypnsis Hypnsis des nt increase memry accuracy; it can increase amunt f infrmatin remembered, but it als increases errrs Des nt prduce a literal re-experiencing f lng-ag events Theries f hypnsis Dissciatin theries

34 34 Like lucid dreaming and simple distractins, hypnsis invlves dissciatin, a split in cnsciusness in which ne part f the mind perates independently f the rest f cnsciusness Several theries f dissciatin attempt t explain the state These theries fit well with recent research and brain theries The scicgnitive apprach The effects are a result f the interactin between the hypntist and the abilities, beliefs, and expectatins f the participant Individual plays the rle f a hypntized persn withut faking This rle, like thers, is s engrssing, it is dne withut intent Individual uses imaginatin and fantasy t fulfill the rle requirements 5. Cnsciusness-altering drugs Altering md and cnsciusness Effrts t alter md and cnsciusness appear t be universal During the 1960s, peple sught t prduce altered states f cnsciusness Classifying Drugs Psychactive drugs -- substance affecting perceptin, md, thinking, memry, r behavir by changing the bdys bichemistry Classifying drugs Stimulants Speed up activity in central nervus system Include ccaine, amphetamines, nictine, caffeine, MDMA, Ritalin Depressants (sedatives)

35 35 Slw dwn activity in central nervus system Include alchl, tranquilizers, barbiturates Opiates Mimic endrphins Include pium, mrphine, herin, methadne Psychedelics Alter perceptin Include LSD, mescaline, psilcybin Anablic sterids and marijuana--dnt fit ther classificatins Physilgy f drug effects Can prduce cgnitive r emtinal effects Repeated use f certain drugs can cause permanent brain damage Sme drugs lead t tlerance (needing mre ver time) and withdrawal (symptms upn remval f the drug) Psychlgy f drug effects Effects depend n a persns physical cnditin, experience with the drug, envirnmental setting, and mental set Alchl may be used as an excuse fr vilent r ther behavir The drug debate Often peple fail t distinguish between drug abuse and drug use Legality f drugs nt always linked t dangerusness

36 36 Tpic : Sensatin And Perceptin Tpic Objective: At the end f this tpic students will be able t: Understand the the separate sense receptrs, and what kinds f stimulatin d they respnd t Understand the abslute threshlds and difference threshlds, and hw des signal detectin thery help us understand them Understand the primary distinctins amng sensry adaptatin, sensry deprivatin, and selective attentin Understand the three psychlgical dimensins f visin Understand the rds and cnes differ in their structure and functins Understand the the trichrmatic thery and ppnent-prcess thery explain clr visin Understand the fur main Gestalt principles f perceptin Understand the five visual cnstancies that cntribute t visual perceptin Understand the three psychlgical dimensins f hearing Understand the majr structures f the inner ear that cntribute t the sense f hearing Understand the taste and smell called chemical senses Hw des gate-cntrl thery accunt fr ur perceptin f pain Understand the evidence that sme perceptual abilities are present frm birth Understand the these abilities, and what is the evidence Understand the fur psychlgical and cultural factrs that influence hw we perceive things Understand the evidence fr the existence f subliminal perceptin r extrasensry perceptin Definitin/Overview: Sensatin: In psychlgy, sensatin is the first stage in the bichemical and neurlgic events that begins with the impinging f a stimulus upn the receptr cells f a sensry rgan, which then leads t perceptin, the mental state that is reflected in statements like "I see a unifrmly blue wall." In ther wrds, sensatins are the first stages in the functining f senses. Perceptin: In psychlgy and the cgnitive sciences, perceptin is the prcess f attaining awareness r understanding f sensry infrmatin. It is a task far mre cmplex than was

37 37 imagined in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was predicted that building perceiving machines wuld take abut a decade, a gal which is still very far frm realizable. The wrd perceptin cmes frm yje weird Latins wrd perceptin, percepi,, meaning "receiving, cllecting, actin f taking pssessin, apprehensin with the mind r senses." Key Pints: 1. Our Sensatinal Senses Definitins Sensatin--the detectin f physical energy emitted r reflected by physical bjects Perceptin--prcesses that rganize sensry impulses int meaningful patterns Intrductin t the senses There are five widely knwn senses and ther lesser knwn senses All senses evlved t help us survive The riddle f separate sensatins Sense receptrs stimulate sensry neurns which stimulate brain cells Encding the electrical messages--the nervus system uses tw kinds f cdes Anatmical cdes Dctrine f specific nerve energies--signals received by the sense rgans stimulate different nerve pathways, which terminate in different areas f the brain Des nt fully explain separate sensatins; different skin senses d nt have distinct nerve pathways; different clrs d nt have distinct pathways Functinal cdes Particular receptrs fire r are inhibited in the presence f certain stimuli

38 38 Cdes relate t which cells, hw many, and the rate and pattern f firing Synesthesia ccurs when stimulatin f ne sense evkes sensatins in anther Measuring the senses Psychphysics--hw the physical prperties f stimuli are related t ur psychlgical experience f them Abslute threshld--the smallest amunt f energy a persn can detect reliably (50 percent f the time) Difference threshld--the smallest difference in stimulatin that a persn can detect reliably (50 percent f the time); als called just nticeable difference (jnd) Signal detectin thery Accunts fr respnse bias (tendency t say yes r n t a signal) Separates sensry prcesses (the intensity f the stimulus) frm the decisin prcess (influenced by bservers respnse bias) Sensry Adaptatin Decline in sensry respnsiveness ccurs when a stimulus is unchanging; nerve cells temprarily stp respnding Sensry deprivatin studies Early deprivatin study subjects became edgy, disriented, cnfused, restless, and had hallucinatins Early studies exaggerated negative reactins Brain requires minimum stimulatin t functin nrmally Sensing withut perceiving Ccktail party phenmenn--we rutinely blck ut unimprtant sensatins

39 39 Selective attentin prtects us frm being verwhelmed with sensatins 2. Visin What we see Stimulus fr visin is light, which travels in waves Characteristics f light waves Hue--clr that is related t wavelength Brightness--intensity, crrespnds t amplitude f the wave Saturatin--clrfulness--cmplexity f the range f wavelengths Psychlgical dimensins f visual experience--hue, brightness, saturatin Physical prperties f light--wavelength, intensity, cmplexity An eye n the wrld Crnea--frnt part f the eye; prtects the eye and bends light rays tward lens Lens--lcated behind the crnea; fcuses light by changing curvature Iris--muscles that cntrl the amunt f light that gets int the eye Pupil--rund pening surrunded by iris; widens and dilates t let light in Retina--lcated in the back f the eye, cntains visual receptrs Parts f retina Tw types f receptrs Fvea--center f retina, sharpest visin, cntains nly cnes Prcessing visual infrmatin Dark adaptatin--time it takes t adjust t dim illuminatin-- reflects mainly increase in sensitivity f rds

40 40 Rds and cnes cnnect t biplar neurns that cnnect t ganglin cells, whse axns cnverge t frm ptic nerve, that carries infrmatin ut f the eye t the brain Optic nerve--leaves the eye at ptic disc--n rds r cnes--blind spt n retina Why the visual system is nt a camera Eyes are nt a passive recrder f external wrld; neurns build picture f the external wrld by detecting its meaningful features Special feature-detectr cells in visual crtex cde cmplex features Other cells in the visual system respnd maximally t certain specific visual infrmatin like faces, bulls-eyes, r starlike shapes Frequency, pattern, and rhythm f firing all prvide infrmatin t the brain Hw we see clrs Trichrmatic (Yung-Helmhltz) thery This apprach applies t the first level f prcessing (in the retina) Retina cntains three types f cnes: ne respnds t blue, anther t green, anther t red; these cmbine t make all clrs Peple with clr deficiencies lack particular types f cnes Oppnent-prcess thery Secnd stage f clr prcessing in the ganglin cells f the retina and neurns in the thalamus and visual crtex (ppnent prcess cells) They turn ff t ne wavelength in a pair and n t the ther Anther ppnent-prcess system respnds in ppsing fashin t black and white, prviding infrmatin abut brightness Oppnent-prcess thery can explain why we see negative afterimages

41 41 Perceived clr f an bject als depends n the wavelengths reflected by the ther bjects arund it Cnstructing the visual wrld Visual perceptin--the mind interprets the retinal image and cnstructs the wrld using infrmatin frm ther senses Frm perceptin Gestalt psychlgists studied hw peple rganize the visual wrld int meaningful patterns Strategies fr building perceptual units include use f: figure/grund distinctin, prximity, clsure, similarity, and cntinuity Depth and distance perceptin--bjects lcatin inferred frm distance r depth cues Bincular cues--dependent n infrmatin frm bth eyes Changes in angle f cnvergence f the image seen by each eye prvide distance cues Retinal disparity--disparity in the lateral separatin between tw bjects as seen by the tw eyes is used t infer depth r distance Mncular cues--cues that d nt depend n using bth eyes include interpsitin and linear perspective Visual cnstancies: When seeing is believing Perceptual cnstancy--ur perceptin f bjects is unchanging thugh the sensry patterns they prduce are cnstantly shifting Visual cnstancies--shape, lcatin, size, brightness, and clr Visual illusins: When seeing is misleading--visual cnstancies may ccasinally fl us, resulting in visual illusins

42 42 3. Hearing What we hear Stimulus fr sund is a wave f pressure created when an bject vibrates; that causes mlecules in a transmitting substance (such as air) t mve Characteristics f sund waves Ludness--intensity f a waves pressure; crrespnds t amplitude; als affected by pitch; units f measure are decibels Pitch--frequency (and intensity) f wave; units f measure are hertz (cycles per secnd) Timbre--cmplexity f wave; the distinguishing quality f a sund When all frequencies f the sund spectrum are present, white nise ccurs An ear n the wrld Sund wave passes int the uter ear thrugh a canal t strike the eardrum Eardrum vibrates at the same frequency and amplitude as the wave The wave vibrates three small bnes in the inner ear--the hammer, anvil, and stirrups--intensify the sund; the third bne pushes n a membrane that guards the entrance t the inner ear, f which the cchlea is a part The cchlea cntains the receptr cells called cilia, r hair cells, that are embedded in the basilar membrane stretching acrss the cchlea Pressure causes mvement in the basilar membrane; the hair cells initiate a signal t the auditry nerve, which carries the message t the brain The pattern f mvement f the basilar membrane influences the pattern and frequency f hw the neurns fire, which determines what is heard Cnstructing the auditry wrld Perceptin is used t rganize patterns f sunds t cnstruct meaning Strategies used t rganize and interpret sunds include the Gestalt principles f figure/grund, prximity, cntinuity, similarity, clsure

43 43 Ludness is a distance cue Differences in ludness and/r time f arrival f auditry stimuli t the tw ears allws us t estimate directin 4. Other Senses Taste Chemicals stimulate receptrs (inside taste buds) n tngue, thrat, and rf f muth Papillae--bumps n tngue, cntain taste buds Taste receptrs are replaced every 10 days--number f taste buds and receptr cells declines with age Fur basic tastes: salty, sur, bitter, sweet Each taste prduced by a different type f chemical Each can be perceived wherever there are receptrs Flavrs are a cmbinatin f the fur, but unclear hw this ccurs Natural tastes--preference fr sweet Taste influenced by smell, culture, individual differences, temperature, texture There are genetic differences in sensitivity t certain tastes Smell The sense f smell is called lfactin Receptrs are millins f specialized neurns embedded in a mucus membrane in upper part f nasal passage; respnd t chemical mlecules in the air Signals travel frm receptrs t lfactry bulb in the brain Nt well understd--n agreement n which smells are basic; there may be a thusand different receptr types

44 44 Sense f smell allws us t sniff ut danger--smke, spiled fd, pisn gases Odr preferences influenced by culture, cntext, and experience Senses f the skin Skin prtects innards, helps identify bjects, invlved in intimacy, serves as bundary Skin senses include: tuch (pressure), warmth, cld, and pain N crrespndence amng fur sensatins and types f receptrs, except fr pressure Many aspects f tuch cntinue t baffle scientists The mystery f pain Pain differs frm the ther skin senses in that remval f stimulus desnt always terminate sensatin Chrnic pain puts stress n the bdy Gate-cntrl thery f pain T experience pain sensatin, impulses must pass a gate t central nervus system The gate is made f neurns that either transmit r blck pain message Chrnic pain results when fibers that clse the gate are damaged The neurmatrix thery f pain Gate-cntrl thery can't explain phantm pain The brain can generate pain withut external stimulatin The neurmatrix gives us a sense f ur wn bdies Abnrmal activity can ccur in the neurmatrix as a result f memries and expectatins