IMPROVEMENT OF INTELLIGENCE, LEARNING ABILITY AND MORAL JUDGMENT THROUGH THE PRACTICE OF THE TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION TECHNIQUE

Transcription

1 PAPER 2 IMPROVEMENT OF INTELLIGENCE, ABILITY AND MORAL JUDGMENT THROUGH THE PRACTICE OF THE TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION TECHNIQUE NITTAYA J. KOTCHABHAKDI 1, S. PIPATVERAVAT 2, N. KOTCHABHAKDI3, P. TAPANYA 4, and S. PORNPATHKUL 1 Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University 2 Prasart Neurological Hospital 3 Mahidol University 4 Somdejchaopraya Hospital Faculty of Humanities, Sri-Nakharinwirot University High school students who began the Transcendental Meditation programme showed improvements in intelligence, learning ability, and moral judgement over a 4-month period compared to non-meditating controls. The degree of improvement was found to be closely related to regularity in the practice.-editors The following is the text of the original paper which appeared in the Proceedings of the Second Asian Workshop on Child and Adolescent Development, February 1-24, 182, Bangkok and Bangsaen, Thailand, and is reprinted here with the permission of the Behavioral Science Research Institute, Sri Nakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand. The effect of the Transcendental Meditation program on intelligence, learning ability and moral judgment was measured in 4 Thai students, using Wechsler,s Adult Intelligence Scale, a verba/learning task of Thai nonsense syllables, and Rest,s Defining Issues Test. After initial testing the subjects were divided into two groups-3 were instructed in the Transcendental Meditation technique, and served as controls. There were no significant differences between the two groups on any of the measures at pretest. The three tests were subsequently readministered after 4 months. For the purpose of analysis the subjects practicing Transcendental Meditation were divided into two groups: those who had practiced Transcendental Meditation regularly during the experimental period and those who had been irregular in the practice. Significant improvements from pretest performance were shown on all three measures, and particularly on moral judgment, by both regular practitioners of Transcendental Meditation (p <. 001) and irregular practitioners (p <. 0), the benefits being substantially greater in the regular practitioners. There was no significant change in the control group. Overall improvements were: 8% on moral judgment, 10% on intelligence, and % on learning ability in the regular practitioners of Transcendental Meditation; and 1% on mora/judgment, 2.% on intelligence, and 3% on learning ability in the irregular practitioners. Furthermore, a positive correlation (p <.OJ) was found between the increases in intelligence and moral judgment in the practitioners of Transcendental Meditation, thus emphasizing the holistic growth of cognitive and emotional factors which results from the practice of Transcendental Meditation. It is concluded that the Transcendental Meditation program produces a cumulative improvement in intelligence, learning ability, and moral judgment which is greatest with the regular practice of Transcendental Meditation. These benefits are attributed to the reductions in stress and to the more orderly functioning 18

2 KOTCHABHAKDI ET AL. INTELLIGENCE,, AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE: INTELLIGENCE, MORAL JUDGMENT -PAPER 2 of the nervous system documented in previous research on Transcendental Meditation. These results are of great relevance to the development of full mental potential and greater moral maturity. It has long been noted that human beings make use of a very restricted portion of their potentials or their possible capacities, whether physically, intellectually or morally, as has been stated by James, Maslow and Murphy (Bernard, 14). Rogers further postulated that in every individual there is the tendency to express and activate all the capacities of the self, awaiting only the proper condition to be released (Rogers, 1). In the East, the process which emphasizes the evolution or cultivation of the mind from within the individual in order to attain "higher" states of consciousness is meditation, which was once believed to be only subjective or mystical until recently elucidated by scientific investigations. Today's technologies in the sciences of psychophysiology, biochemistry, electroencephalography, and behavioral sciences have enabled researchers to measure empirically the changes produced by meditational techniques such as Yoga, Zen, Buddhist and Transcendental Meditation. Among these techniques, Transcendental Meditation or TM, as taught by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, is a simple, systematic procedure originating from the ancient Vedic Tradition of India, and one of the most intensively studied in numerous research areas during the last 1 years. Physiological studies have verified that the practice of Transcendental Meditation produces a unique wakeful hypometabolic physiologic state which is distinct from commonly encountered states of consciousness, namely wakefulness, sleep, and dreaming, and from altered states of consciousness, such as hypnosis and autosuggestion (Wallace, 10; Wallace et al., 11, 12). The meditating subject sits with eyes closed and exhibits all the features of a profound hypometabolic state which is deeper than sleep, together with an EEG pattern suggestive of completely inactive wakefulness with the capability to respond to stimuli. Cardiac output falls, breathing becomes shallower or slow with no change in respiratory quotient, 0 2 consumption and C0 2 elimination diminish, blood lactate falls, and skin resistance rises. In the electroencephalogram, occipital alpha activity, characteristic of the inactive waking state, spreads forward to the frontal pole, increases in amplitude, and begins to slow down with a higher proportion of alpha to delta (greater wakefulness) and a lower proportion of beta to alpha (less activation) (Banquet et al., 12; Banquet, 13). By means of power spectra and statistical analysis, Banquet and Glueck have shown that in experienced meditators synchronization occurs first between different areas of the same hemisphere and then between the two hemispheres. This represents an extremely simple state of brain activity in which the whole cortex appears to be resonating at a slow alpha or fast theta rhythm. Glueck has shown that the above changes can be seen even the first time a subject meditates, although they become more pronounced with regular practice over months or years. The cumulative positive effects of this unique restfully alert state have been demonstrated in studies reporting improved physiology and psychology in those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique. Physiological indices of stress were found to be lower in regular meditators (Orme Johnson, 13). It is not surprising to find therefore that the TM technique is beneficial in various conditions related to stress such as lowering of blood pressure in patients with essential hypertension (Wallace et al., 12; Blackwell et al., 1); improvement in pulmonary function and severity in asthmatic subjects (Wilson et al., 1); and decrease or discontinuation of drug abuse, alcohol use, and smoking (Wallace et al., 12; Shafii et al., 14, 1). Moreover, studies on American university students have indicated that the effect of the TM technique in reducing negative personality traits such as anxiety, depression, and neuroticism, and increasing self-actualization is marked and cumulative (Seeman et al., 12; Nidich et al., 13; 1-ijelle, 14; Ferguson and Gowan, 1). Using paired associate learning and recall, Abrams (1) found significantly quicker acquisition of information and better recall in UCLA students who were experienced meditators as compared to beginning meditators and nonmeditating controls. In another controlled study in undergraduate students, subjects participating in the Transcendental Meditation program demonstrated a significant higher level of moral maturity than nonmeditating subjects and pre-meditators (Nidich, 1). There are numerous studies in other countries which have investigated the effect and application of TM practice in different socio-cultural settings. For example a one year longitudinal study in Dutch high school students demonstrated that subjects regularly practicing TM showed a significant 1

3 decrease in neuroticism and increase in intelligence (Tjoa, 1). Similar results were attained in a more extensive 1-month longitudinal study in adults whose nonverbal fluid intelligence interestingly showed further development (Tjoa, 1). The present study was designed to investigate the effect of TM practice in Thai adolescents, who are caught in a rapidly changing society in terms of culture, economics, and family pattern, with high competition for educational opportunity, as well as having to cope with their own physiological and psychological transition. It was hypothesized that: 1. Adolescents who practice TM would be able to use their intellectual potential more effectively in dealing with their environment as shown by increases in intelligence and learning ability. 2. Meditators would attain a higher level of moral judgment. 3. Regular meditators would benefit more than irregular meditators, who would acquire some positive effect compared to nonmeditating controls. 4. There would be positive correlation between improvement of intellectual function and increase in moral maturity in each subject. DEFINITION OF TERMS TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION (TM) is a systematically taught mental technique involving the use of a special sound known as a "mantra". The technique, originating from the ancient Vedic tradition, was revived in 18 by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, an Indian scholar and teacher. The technique can be learned within four consecutive days from an authorized TM teacher. The meditator is given a specific "mantra" and meditates for 20 minutes twice a day, sitting comfortably with eyes closed, once in the morning and again in the evening. INTELLIGENCE is defined as the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment (Wechsler, 18). ABILITY is the ability to acquire and recall the information given. In the present study, learning ability implies the ability to learn a series of Thai nonsense syllables. MORAL JUDGMENT as defined by Kohlberg (1) refers to a way of thinking in solving dilemmas. This cognitive moral development theory rests upon the notion that moral conduct is based on choice in a problematic situation representing a dilemma. The responses, which are neither the content of choice nor the consequences of actions but the intentions that lead to the judgment of right conduct, are characterized as moral maturity. Kohl berg has delineated three major levels, including six stages of moral development. 1. Preconventionallevel divided into two stages: Stage 1: The punishment and obedience orientation. Stage 2: The instrumental relativist orientation 2. Conventional level: divided into two stages: Stage 3: The interpersonal concordance "goodboy- nice girl" orientation. Stage 4: The law and order orientation. 3. Post conventional, Autonomous or Principle level: Stage : The Social contract, legalistic orientation. Stage : The universal ethical principal orientation. METHODS This study was carried out in high school students, 1- years of age. All subjects took the pretest package before the TM technique was introduced to the experimental group. During the period of this study, the meditating subjects were asked to record their daily practice of the TM technique, and theresearcher collected the records weekly. Four months later, every subject took the posttest package. According to the regularity of their practice, the experimental group were further divided into regular meditators and irregular meditators. The regular meditators included those who had meditated more than 00Jo of the time; the rest were classified as irregular meditators. Intellectual function was assessed by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Learning ability was assessed by using a verbal learning task of Thai nonsense syllables which has been developed by the researchers based on Ebbinghaus theory. This test consists of two sets of Thai nonsense syllables, one for the pretest, the other for the posttest, and has shown test/retest correlation of 0.3. Each set consists of ten items. Each item was written on a single card and arranged in a specific order. If the subject failed to spell all the ten syllables correctly, he took more trials until 1 OOOJo correct recall was achieved in three consecutive trials. 2000

4 KOTCHABHAKDI ET AL. INTELLIGENCE,, AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE: INTELLIGENCE, MORAL JUDGMENT -PAPER 2 The learning ability score depended on the number of the correct responses and the number of trials (Pipatveravat, 181). The maturity of moral judgment was measured by the Defining Issues Test (DIT) developed by James Rest according to Kohlberg' s cognitive moral development theory. This particular test has an objective format using standardized stimuli and test conditions. The subjects respond in terms of rating and ranking instead of in the free-response mode. The DIT had been translated into Thai by Dr. Swanna Pornpathkul, and its reliability was found to be 0.82 through the use of the test/retest Pearson Product Moment Correlation (Mongkolrat, 181). 0 ~ ~ 0 I ~ w ~ 30 < :c u 0 "' 20 ~ w ~ 10 w Q., N (NUMBER OF SUBJEITS IN EACH GROUP) = [=:J MORAL JUDGMENT lliiliill ABILITY ~IQ NONMEDITATING CONTROLS p <.0 p <.0 2(,1 l.o IRREGULAR MEDITATORS p<.os p<.ooi p~.(x)i REGULAR MEDITATORS RESULTS The results revealed that in the pretest the performance of the experimental group and control group were comparable as confirmed by the analysis of variance in table 1. TABLE 1 ANOVA SUMMARY TABLE OF THE PRETEST OF THE THREE GROUPS FOR INTELLIGENCE, ABILITY AND MORAL JUDGMENT SCALE IQ FUNCTION Learning Ability GROUP lrr. Med. Irr. Med. N Moral Judgment lrr. Med. Not significant. PRETEST SCORE Mean S.D TABLE F <Fos<2.1)=3.1l 0.1 (NS) (NS) (NS) ANOVA SUMMARY TABLE OF THE POSTTEST OF THE THREE GROUPS FOR "INTELLIGENCE, ABILITY AND MORAL JUDGMENT SCALE FUNCTION IQ Learning Ability Moral Judgment GROUP lrr. 'Med. lrr. Med. Irr. Med. Significant at.01 level. N POSTTEST SCORE Mean S.D F <F. 01 (2, SI) =S.OI).33*.828* 1.3* FIG. 1. PERCENTAGE OF CHANGE IN MEANS OF IQ, ABILITY AND MORAL JUDGMENT OVER THE PERIOD OF FOUR MONTHS IN EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS. TABLE 3.1 ABILITY AMONG REGULAR MEDITATORS SUBJECT NO IQ CHANGES (3~122) 1 (~133) (12~138) 13 (121~134) (103~10) (108~3) 1 (2~ 131) 21 (103~124) (121~12) (~102) 20 (10~12) 8 (10~) (~ 124) (108~ 122) (10~) (122~133) 1 (12~0) 21 (12~1) IQ RANK* CHANGE IN ABILITY (48~) (2~1) (2~) (1~) (~) -2 (4~2) 32 (3~2) 13 (~3) (~2) 3 (~8) 12 (~8) 3 (~0) (1~) (4~0) 2 (3~) - (8~1) 1 (44~3) 8 (8~) RANK**

5 After four months of TM practice, the meditators the regular meditators was significantly better than showed a marked increase in their intellectual func- that of the irregular meditators and nonmeditating tions and moral judgment, with the regular medi- controls at the 0.01 level. tators showing significantly better performance as The effects of TM practice can be seen in the imshown in table 2. The mean IQ of regular meditators provement of the meditators as demonstrated in was , of irregular meditators was.33, and figure 1. Over the four month period, the control of nonmeditating controls was 4.. There was group showed almost no change in any of the three a significant difference as shown in the F-test. The functions assessed. On the other hand, the regular mean learning ability score for regular meditators meditators had highly significant improvements from was., for irregular meditators was 8., and their pretest performance especially in the matufor nonmeditating controls was.; these were ration of moral judgment (80!o), with a 100!o increase significantly different. For the moral judgment test, in IQ score, equivalent to 12 IQ points, and a 0Jo the mean score of regular meditators was 3.33, of improvement in learning ability. In the irregular irregular meditators was 2.1, and of the nonmeditating controls was 24.4; these also showed significant differences. Using the q-test, it was clearly TABLE 3.3 shown that the performance in all areas assessed in TABLE 3.2 SUBJECT IQ IQ NO. CHANGES RANK* ABILITY AMONG IRREGULAR MEDITATORS SUBJECT IQ IQ NO. CHANGES RANK* CHANGE IN ABILITY SPEARMAN RANK CORRELATION BETWEEN CHANGES IN JQ AND IN ABILITY AMONG NONMEDITATING CONTROLS CHANGE IN AHILITY RANK'* (I 1~122) (42~44) RANK** I 31 (~ ) (~) (108~0) (2~2) (12~12) (4~) (~1) (3~1) (4~2) (4~0) (1~ 128) (3~0) (~0) (~8) (4~ 121) (~3) (101~ 108) (4~) (104~103) (3~) (100~101) (~ ) I (108~ 0) (~) (10~108) (~4) (104~10) (48~48) (2~ 0) (1~) I (10~ Ill) (~) (12~12) (4~42) (~ ) (43~43) (102~103) (1~1) (12~122) (4~3) (122~) (8~2) (3~0) (28~28) (10~10) (48~3) (12~128) (~) (128~131) (~2) ( ) (3~) (13~128) (~48) (3~122) (8~3) (103~101) (~0) (10~1) (~2) (0~ 0) (3~2) (10~2) (~) (~) (~) (128~12) (4~4) Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient 3-4 ~ Q=l- (D=IQ RANK*- ABILITY RANK**) (12~) N(N'-l) (~) Q = SIGNIACANT AT.01 LEVEL 2002

6 KOTCHABHAKDI ET AL. INTELLIGENCE,, AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE: INTELLIGENCE, MORAL JUDGMENT -PAPER 2 meditators, there was some increase in IQ (2.0Jo) and learning ability (3.00Jo), but this was not as remarkable as the improvement in moral judgment (10Jo). dependence between the improvement of intellectual function measured as IQ and maturation of moral judgment. We applied the Spearman Rank Correlation to see if the same persons who improved in their intellectual DISCUSSION functions would also be more mature in their The findings of the study may be summarized as moral judgment. The correlation between the increases in IQ and learning ability was This follows: 1. There were no initial differences between the means that the increase in learning ability correlated control group and the pre-meditator groups on their very well with the increase in IQ, as shown in table IQ, learning ability, and moral judgment. 3.1, 3.2, and Subjects practicing Transcendental Meditation The correlation between the increases in IQ and showed significant improvement in their IQ, learnmoral judgment scores was 0.00, as shown in table ing ability, and moral judgment compared to non- 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3. Those whose IQ improved the most meditating controls whose performance did not were also the ones who increased most in moral judg- change over the period of 4 months. ment. This means that there is significant inter- 3. Subjects who had practiced TM regularly had TABLE 4.1 TABLE 4.2 MORAL JUDGMENT AMONG REGULAR MEDITATORS MORAL JuDGMENT AMONG IRREGULAR MEDITATORS SUBJECT IQ IQ MORAL I. MORAL I. SUBJECT IQ IQ MORAL J. MORAL J. NO. CHANGES RANK* CHANGES RANK** NO. CHANGES RANK* CHANGES RANK** ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (--+1) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (103~10) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (10--+1) (2--+30) ( ) ( ) (--+) ( ) (--+102) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (3--+0) ( ) (10--+) ( ) ( ) ( ) (--+124) (30--+4) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (10--+) (3--+) (10--+1) ( ) 1~ ( ) ( ) (10--+2) (2--+30) (12--+0) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (12--+) ( ) 2003

7 TABLE 4.3 MORAL JUDGMENT AMONG NONMEDITATING CONTROLS SUBJECT IQ IQ MORAL J. MORALJ. NO. CHANGES RANK* CHANGES RANK** (-122) ( ) (---+) ( ) ( ) ( ) (4---+2) ( ) (---+0) ( ) ( ) ( ) (1()(} ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (2---+0) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (1---+1) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (0---+0) ( ) (---+) ( ) Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient l:d 2 Q = 1- (D = IQ RANK*- MORAL J. RANK**) N(Nl-1) Q = 0.00 SIGNIFICANT AT.01 LEVEL the greatest improvement in all three areas assessed, while the irregular meditators showed less remarkable but significant improvement. 4. There was a positive correlation between the increase in IQ and the improvement in moral judgment in each individual. These beneficial effects of the TM technique are attributed to the release of stress and anxiety which have a very deleterious influence on the individual's intellectual functions and moral judgment (Lazarus, 10; cf Lickona, 1). The reduction of stress in TM meditators has been verified by a lowering of plasma cortisol, which is a biochemical index of stress ( J evning et al., 1 ), as well as by a more stabilized galvanic skin resistance, which is a physiological index of stress (Orme-Johnson, 13). Thus, meditators would appraise the environment as less stressful and nonthreatening, and could make more use of their existing potentials. More orderliness in the nervous system is reflected in more efficient mental functions, such as improved perceptual attention (Pelletier, 14), faster reaction time (Appelle, 14), and further development of intelligence in adults (Tjoa, 1). Shaw and Kolb (1) found that Transcendental Meditators were more alert and responsive to the environment without maintaining high emotional or physiological arousal, anxiety, fear, and tension. Therefore, the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique would have multiplying beneficial effects on cognitive and emotional factors, both of which determine the process of moral development of the individual. In the present study, this multiplying effect can be clearly seen in the 80Jo improvement in the moral judgment score, with more responses categorized as stages 4 and among the regular meditators (Mongkolrat, 181). The positive Spearman Rank Correlation coefficient of 0.00 also confirmed the simultaneous improvement on cognition and moral development. According to Kohlberg (1), individuals maintain the stages of moral development, and do not regress back to lower stages once they have passed to the more mature stages. It is very likely, therefore, that the students whose moral judgment had improved after four months of TM practice would maintain their level of moral maturity, although more longitudinal follow-up studies will be necessary to confirm this postulation. The finding that regular meditators benefitted the most and irregular meditators showed some improvement, while there was no change in the performance of the controls, suggests a causal relationship between the practice of Transcendental Meditation and the improvements in the functions assessed. We can conclude that the Transcendental Meditation technique has a cumulative effect on improvement of intelligence, learning ability, and moral judgment simultaneously. The more regularly one meditates, the greater the improvement one achieves both intellectually and morally, and doing some meditation is better than not doing any at all. The potential applications of the TM program for 2004

8 KOTCHABHAKDI ET AL. INTELLIGENCE,, AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE: INTELLIGENCE, MORAL JUDGMENT -PAPER 2 enhancing the development of the adolescents, as well as of other age groups, are very encouraging. The program is simple and effortless and yet it makes possible the fuller development of the potential of the human being. REFERENCES Abrams, Allan I. "Paired-Associate Learning and Recall". Scientific Research on the Transcendental Meditation Program: Collected Papers, Vol. 1, D. W. Orme-Johnson, and J. T. Farrow (eds.), pp Los Angeles: MIU Press, 1. (Hereafter cited as Collected Papers.) Allison, John. "Respiratory Changes during Transcendental Meditation". Lancet, No. 1, 10, p Appelle, Stuart, and Oswald, Lawrence E. "Simple Reaction Time as a Function of Alertness and Prior Mental Activity". Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 38, 14, pp Banquet, Jean-Paul. "EEG and Meditation". Electroencephalography (llld Clinical Neurophysiology, Vol. 33, 12, p. 44. Banquet, Jean-Paul. "Spectral Analysis of the EEG in Meditation", Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, Vol. 3, 13, pp Bernard, Harold W. Personality. Boston: Holbrook Press Inc. 14. Blackwell, Barry, et al. "Effects of Transcendental Meditation on Blood Pressure". Psychosomatic Medicine, Vol. 3, 1, p. 8. Ferguson, Phillip C., and Gowan, John C. "TM-Some Preliminary Psychological Findings". Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 1, Vol. 1, No. 3. Hjelle, Larry A. "Transcendental Meditation and Psycho ' logical Health". Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 3, 14, pp Hurlock, Elisabeth B. Adolescent Development, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 13. Jevning, Ron, et al. "Plasma Prolactin and Cortisol during Transcendental Meditation". Presented at the Endocrine Society th Annual Meeting, New York City, June 1. In Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp Kohlberg, Lawrence. Stage and Sequence: The Cognitive Developmental Approach to Socialization. In Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research, ed. D. A. Goslin, Chicago: Rand McNally, 1. Kohlberg, Lawrence. The Cognitive Developmental Approach to Moral Education, Phi Delta Kappan, 1. Levine, Paul H., et al. "EEG coherence during the Transcendental Meditation Technique". In Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp Lickona, Thomas. Moral Development and Behavior T?eory, Research and Social Issue, New York, Holt Rmehart and Winston, 1. Mongkolrat, Pimmas. "The Effect of Transcendental Meditation on Moral Judgment", Master's Thesis, Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 181. Nidich, Sanford, et al. "Influence of Transcendental Meditation". Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 20, 13, pp. -. Nidich, Sanford. "A Study of the Relationship of the Transcendental Meditation Program to Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning". In Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp Orme-Johnson, David W. "Autonomic Stability and Transcendental Meditation". Psychosomatic Medicine, Vol. 3, 13, pp Pelletier, Kenneth R. "Influence of Transcendental Meditation upon Autokinetic Perception". Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 3, 14, pp Pipatveravat, Somsri. "The Effects of Transcendental Meditation on Intelligence and Learning Ability". Master's Thesis, Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 181. Rogers, Carl R. Toward a Theory of Creativity. In Creativity and Its Cultivation, ed. H. H. Anderson. New York: Harper and Row, 1. Seeman, William, et al. "Influence of Transcendental Meditation on a Measure of Self-Actualization". Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 1, 12, pp. 4-. Shafii, Mohammad, et al. "Meditation and Marijuana". American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 131, 14, pp Shafii, Mohammad, et al. "Meditation and the Prevention of Alcohol Abuse". American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 132, 1, pp Shaw, Robert, and Kolb, David. "Reaction Time Following the Transcendental Meditation Technique". In Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp Stek, Robert J., and Bass, Barry A. "Personal Adjustment and Perceived Locus of Control among Students Interested in Meditation". Psychological Reports, Vol. 32, 13, pp Tjoa, Andre. "Some evidence that the Transcendental Meditation program increases intelligence and reduces neuroticism as measured by psychological tests". In Collected papers, Vol. 1, pp Tjoa, Andre. "Meditation, Neuroticism and Intelligence: A Follow Up". Gedrag: Tijdschrift voor Psychologie (Behavior: Journal of Psychology), Vol. 3, 1, pp (Also in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp ) Wallace, R. Keith. "Physiological Effects of Transcendental Meditation". Science, Vol. 1, 10, pp (Also in Collected Papers, Vol. 1 pp ) ' Wallace, R. Keith, et al. "A Wakeful Hypometabolic Physiologic State". American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 221, 11, pp. -. (Also in Collected Papers Vol. 1, pp. -8.) ' 200

9 Wallace, R. Keith, et al. "Decreased Blood Pressure in Hypertensive Subjects who Practiced Meditation". Circulation, Supplement II to Vol. 4 and 4, 12, p. 1. (Also in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 2.) Wallace, R. Keith, et al. "The Physiology of Meditation". Scientific American, Vol. 22, 12, pp (Also in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 8-1.) Wallace, R. Keith, et al. "Decreased Drug Abuse with Transcendental Meditation: A Study of 1,82 Subjects". Drug Abuse: Proceedings of the International Conference, ed. Chris J. D. Zarafonetis. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 12, pp (Also in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp ) Wechsler, David. The measurement and appraisal of adult intelligence, 4th ed., Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins. 18. Wilson, Archie F., et al. "Transcendental Meditation and Asthma". Respiration, Vol. 32, 1, pp (Also in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp ) Winer, B. J. Statistical Principles in Experimental Design, New York, McGraw-Hill Book,