Amplification Strengthening of stimulus signal. (1) Reception Receptor detects stimuli
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1 Chapter 50: Sensory / Motor Mechanisms Ability to distinguish stimuli depends on the brain: Sensations: Electrical impulses that reach the brain via sensory neurons Perceptions: Interpretation of electrical impulses by the brain Pathway of a stimulus: Amplification Strengthening of stimulus signal Intensity = AP frequency Low intensity Campbell et al. Figure 50.2 Sensory Adaptation Decrease in responsiveness over time High intensity Exteroreceptors (external) Interoreceptors (internal) (1) Reception Receptor detects stimuli (2) Transduction Stimuli converted to electrical impulse (3) Transmission Signal conducted to CNS (4) Summation Integration of signal by CNS Sensory receptors are categorized by the type of energy they transduce: 1) Mechanoreceptors: Stimulated by physical deformation (e.g., touch) Muscle spindles = stretch receptors monitoring skeletal muscle length Hair cells = receptors detecting motion (e.g., hearing) 2) Nociceptors (pain receptors): Stimulated by inflamed / damaged tissue 3) Thermoreceptors: Stimulated by heat / cold 4) Chemoreceptors: Stimulated by specific molecule types Osmoreceptors = detect changes in [solute] Gustatory (taste) / Olfactory (smell) receptors 5) Electromagnetic receptors: Stimulated by electromagnetic energy Photoreceptors and Vision: Invertebrates: A) Light Detection Eyes: Planaria Ocellus Allows for detection of light intensity / directionality B) Image-Forming Eyes: Campbell e t al. Figure Magnetic Field 1) Compound Eye (insects / crustaceans) Consists of multiple ommatidia (facets) Accurate at detecting movement 2) Single-lens Eye (Spiders / mollusks) Light Heat Campbell et al. Figure Campbell et al. Figure Campbell et al. Figure Photoreceptors and Vision: Vertebrates: A) Single-lens Eye: Cornea: Transparent; allows light into eye Pupil: Regulates amount of light entering eye Lens: Focuses image onto back of eye Fish = move lens / back Mammals = change shape of lens Retina: Inner surface of eye; contains photoreceptors Rods (125 million) = light sensitive Cones (6 million) = color sensitive Color vision common in lower vertebrates but rare in mammals WHY? Physiology of Vision (example = rods): A) Rhodopsin (light absorbing structure) triggers signal-transduction pathway: Opsin = membrane protein Retinal = light-absorbing pigment When rhodopsin absorbs light, the retinal changes shape and separates from opsin Why does it take several minutes for eyes to adjust to dark? Bleaching Separation of retinal Page 1 1
2 2 Physiology of Vision (example = rods): A) Rhodopsin (light absorbing pigment) triggers signal-transduction pathway: Altered opsin (minus retinal) triggers enzymatic pathway (similar to Figure 50.21): Physiology of Vision (example = rods): B) Retina assists cerebral cortex in processing visual information IMPORTANT FACT: Light does not depolarize rod cell, but hyperpolarizes it Campbell et al. Figure Vertical Pathway: Rod Bipolar Cell Ganglion Cell Lateral Pathway: Horizontal / Amacrine cells link neighboring cells Lateral Inhibition: Horizontal cells inhibit nearby rods from firing (sharpens edges / enhances contrast) Campbell et al. Figure Skeletal System: Supporting framework for the body Types of Animal Skeletons: 1) Hydrostatic Skeleton Who: Cnidarians Flatworms Nematodes Annelids Fluid-filled compartments provide support (via pressure) Movement = contraction of: 1) Circular muscles 2) Longitudinal muscles Peristalsis Ideal for aquatic life Limited vertical support Campbell et al. Figure Skeletal System: Supporting framework for the body Types of Animal Skeletons: 2) Exoskeleton (e.g., insects, crustaceans) Rigid, encasement deposited on surface of organism Chitin (modified polysaccharide) / Calcium carbonate Muscles attach from outer shell to interior of body Chitin Must be periodically shed 3) Endoskeleton (e.g., mammals) Rigid, internal skeleton supporting body (e.g., plates / bones) Benefits: Can grow with organism; relatively lightweight Human Skeleton = 206 bones Axial skeleton Skull, vertebral column, rib cage Appendicular Skeleton Tissue Types: Upper / Lower limbs 1) Cartilage (flexible support / connections) 2) Bone (rigid support - matrix) Bones connected at joints: 1) Hinge joint: 2 - dimensional movement (e.g., elbow) 2) Ball-and-socket joint: 3 - dimensional movement (e.g., hip) Page 2
3 3 Function of Muscle: 1) Produce movement Locomotion / manipulation (skeletal) Campbell et al. Figure Blood pressure (cardiac) Propulsion (smooth) 2) Maintain posture 3) Support soft tissue (e.g., abdominal wall) 4) Guard entrance / exit (e.g., lips / anus) 5) Maintain body temperature (endotherms) Prune Belly Syndrome Gross Anatomy of Muscle: Connective Tissue Layers: Epimysium: Outside muscle covering Form tendons Perimysium: Compartments Divides muscle into fascicles Contains blood vessels/nerves Endomysium: Surrounds individual muscle fibers & ties them together Muscle Fiber (cell): Functional Unit of Muscle Myofibrils contain myofilaments (protein) : 1) Actin (Thin filament) 2) Myosin (Thick filament) Multi-nucleated Sarcomere: Repeating units of myofilaments (~ 10,000 / cell) Sarcomere Actin Myosin Sarcolemma: Cell membrane Sarcoplasma: Cytoplasm Transverse Tubules: Network of passageways through fiber Continuous with outside of cell Triad Sacroplasmic Reticulum: Specialized endoplasmic reticulum Contain calcium ions (Ca ++ ) I Band M line Z line Myofibrils: Cylindrical structures containing contractile fibers A Band Page 3
4 Interactions between the thick and thin filaments of sarcomeres are responsible for muscle contraction Sliding Filament Theory Thick filaments: Composed of many myosin molecules Tails: Attach molecules together Heads: Bind with thin filament Hinge Interactions between the thick and thin filaments of sarcomeres are responsible for muscle contraction Sliding Filament Theory Interactions between the thick and thin filaments of sarcomeres are responsible for muscle contraction Sliding Filament Theory Thick filaments: Composed of many myosin molecules Thin filaments: Composed of interwoven actin molecules Tails: Attach molecules together Heads: Bind with thin filament Tropomyosin: Cover s Troponin: Bind tropomyosin to actin Neuron Synaptic Knob ACh ACh ACh Neuromuscular Junction: Neuron Muscle fiber 1 connection / muscle fiber T-tubule Sarcolemma Neuron Synaptic Knob ACh ACh ACh Neuromuscular Junction: Neuron Muscle fiber 1 connection / muscle fiber T-tubule Sarcolemma Motor End Plate Sarcoplasm Motor End Plate Sarcoplasm Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Muscle Contraction Events: Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Ca ++ Muscle Contraction Events: 1) Acetylcholine (ACh - neurotransmitter) released from synaptic knob 4) AP descends into muscle fiber via T-tubules 2) ACh binds to receptors on motor end plate; generates AP 5) AP triggers release of Ca ++ from sarcoplasmic reticulum Sarcomere of myofibril 3) Action potential (AP - electrical impulse) conducted along sarcolemma Sarcomere of myofibril 6) Ca ++ initiates cross-bridging (actin / myosin) Page 4 4
5 Ca ++ Actin Troponin Tropomyosin Myosin Head 4) binds to myosin head; head detaches and re-cocks Re-cock ADP P Page 5 5
6 Tension Stimulus 4) binds to myosin head; head detaches and re-cocks 5) Myosin head binds to ; Process repeated Energy = Creatine phosphate Re-cock Re-cock ADP P ADP P Campbell et al. Figure ) Myosin head binds to ; Process repeated 4) binds to myosin head; head detaches and re-cocks Energy = Creatine phosphate 6) Process ends when APs cease ACh broken down by acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Ca ++ returned to sarcoplasmic reticulum (active transport) Rigor Mortis Lou Gerig s Disease (ALS) Tetanus Botulism 1) Number of muscle fibers activated: Diverse body movements require variation in muscle activity Motor Unit: A single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers innervated by it 2) Frequency of stimulation: Twitches alone are not a useful contraction Twitch = Single stimulus-contraction-relaxation sequence Recruitment: Addition of motor units to produce smooth, steady muscle tension (small large motor units) Latent Period: Time between stimulus and tension development Contraction Phase: Period where tension rises to peak level Ca ++ release; cross-bridge formation CP RP Motor unit size dictates control: Fine Control = 1-5 fibers / MU (e.g., eye) Gross Control = 1000 s fibers / MU (e.g., leg) All-or-none response Relaxation Phase: Period where tension falls to resting level Ca ++ uptake; cross-bridge detachment LP Time Page 6 6
7 Tension Stimulus Tension Stimulus 7 2) Frequency of stimulation: Incomplete Tetanus: Rapid cycles of contraction & relaxation 2) Frequency of stimulation: Complete Tetanus: Rapid stimulation erases relaxation phase Maximum Tension Maximum Tension Summation: Addition of twitches to produce a more powerful contraction SR can not reclaim Ca ++ (stimulation too rapid) Time Most normal muscle contraction involves complete tetanus Time Degree of Muscle Stretch can also Affect Muscle Performance: Too contracted = no room for movement; poor cross-bridge formation Property Skeletal Muscle: Cardiac Muscle: Smooth Muscle: Resting length = # of cross-bridges; distance to slide Filament Organization Control Mechanism Sarcomeres along myofibrils Neural Sarcomeres along myofibrils Automaticity (pacemaker cells) Scattered in sarcoplasm Automaticity, neural, hormonal Too stretched = no cross-bridge formation Calcium Source Sarcoplasmic reticulum SR / across sarcolemma Across sarcolemma (maximal muscle force is near / at normal resting length) Contraction Energy Source Rapid onset; tetanus can occur; rapid fatigue Aerobic / Anaerobic metabolism Slower onset; no tetanus; fatigue-resistant Aerobic metabolism Slow onset; tetanus can occur; fatigue-resistant Aerobic metabolism Page 7
Ability to distinguish stimuli depends on the brain:
1 Chapter 50: Sensory / Motor Mechanisms Campbell et al. Figure 50.2 Ability to distinguish stimuli depends on the brain: Sensations: Electrical impulses that reach the brain via sensory neurons Perceptions:
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